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THE 



YIM-DRESSER'S MANUAL 



AN 



IKiistrafclr featisc 



VINEYARDS AND WINE-MAKING 



BY CHARLES REEMEI.IN, 

OF OHIO. 



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NEW YORK: 
C. M. SAXTON & COMPANY, 

NO. 152 F0LTON STREET. 

1855. &. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, 

By CHARLES REEMELIX, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Ohio. 









OOISTTEISTTS. 

Page 

Introduction, 7 

Names of the various parts of which the Viae is composed, 9 

Location and Soil, 14 

Preparation of the Ground, 19 

How to mark out a Vineyard, and get it ready for the Vines,. ... 25 
The Propagation and Multiplication of Vines, and how to Plant 

them, 29 

What species of Grapevine shall we cultivate ? - 37 

Treatment of a young Vineyard the first three years, 41 

Vineyard Stakes, 48 

Trimming young bearing Vines in the fourth year, 55 

How to bend the Bows, 61 

On Trimming generally, 64 

How to cultivate the soil of a Vineyard, 71 

Vines on Trellises, 73 

Summer Trimming, 77 

Gathering the Grapes, 82 

Manures, 86 

Diseases to which Grapevines are subject, 88 

Wine-making, 89 

Mashing the Grapes, 89 

Pressing, 94 

Treatment of the Wine, , 98 



INTRODUCTION. 

The object of these pages is to furnish to such as 
have no opportunity to learn the Vintners' business 
practically, easily comprehended and reliable instruc- 
tions, so that even the most inexperienced may, with 
this book in his hand, start, plant, perfect and culti- 
vate a vineyard, and make good, wholesome wine. 
The writer is himself a practical vintner, owns vine- 
yards, has worked and does work in them. He gives 
to the reader the knowledge derived from reading, 
and also through a somewhat extended intercourse 
with vintners from various countries, as well as his 
own actual observation in various parts of the United 
States and Europe. 

His object is not to make money. He has long felt 
that the United States need, as an important element 
of its horticultural economy, the domestication of the 
grape, and that, in the progress of time, the use of 
wine as food must necessarily be a part of the social 
enjoyments of our people. 

He is often asked in private conversation, especially 
while travelHng, various questions about vineyards. 

(7) 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

Thus to answer is very tedious. lie concluded, there- 
fore, to write this little book, which, being sold cheap, 
might be in the hands of nearly everybody, and thus, 
at little cost, give to all who wish it the desired in- 
formation. The writer trusts that it will be received 
as an humble contribution to a subject, which cer- 
tainly is receiving, as it deserves, very general 
attention. 

THE AUTHOR. 



Clje i'ine-Jresser's ^Taiuial 



NAMES OF THE VAEIOUS PAKTS OF WHICH THE 
VINE IS COMPOSED. 

I DEEM a knowledge of these various parts, and 
their names, of mucli consequence to a correct under- 
standing of tlie whole subject, and hence will at once 
describe and name them. 

England has no vineyards, and therefore the techni- 
cal names I shall give are, in general, mere trans- 
lations of similar words, which in German have an 
accepted meaning with reference to Grapevines. I 
give, also, the German in every case, as this may facili- 
tate the intercourse between Americans who plant 
vineyards and the German vineyard men. 

The cut. Fig. 1, represents the various parts of a full- 
grown grape vine, which are severally numbered. 
The reader should familiarize himself with them by 
frequent reference. 

(.9) 



10 THE VIXE-DRESSER'S MANUAL. 

The Grapevine (Weinstock) is properly divided iuto 
two classes : 

I. That below the surface of the ground. 

II. Thai above the ground. 
In the ground are : 

The " Stem,^' (Stamm,) marked No. 1, is either the 
result of the planted cutting or of a grapevine root. 

No. 2 is the ^^ Foot,'' (Fuss,) or lowest part of the 
stem, out of which grow, in an obliquely downward 
direction, those important roots called ^^ foot-roots,^^ 
which, if they spread and grow Avell, are the chief 
basis of the whole vine, and without which it can- 
not be truly healthy. These foot-roots are also 
marked 2. 

From the other buds upon the " Stem," arise the 
^^ Side roois^^^ (Seitenwurzeln ;) they grow above the 
foot, and draw their novirishment like the ^^Foot roots^^^ 
(Fusswurzeln,) through roots almost as fine as hair, 
which spring from the main roots. They are marked 3. 

The ^^ Surface Boots,^^ (Tag Wurzeln,) which grow 
out of the head of the stem, nearly parallel with the 
surface, and also out of those buds which are about 
six inches below the surface of the ground. They are 
marked 4. 

Above the ground are : 

Marked 6, the "i/e«c?," (Kopf,) or the upper part of 
the "Stem," out of which grow the first and second 



NAMES OF THE VARIOUS PARTS. 11 

3^ear tliose first young twigs, from whicb. are ultimately 
formed tlie vines. 

Marked No. 6 are the " Thighs,'' (Schenkel,) of the 
" Vine Stock,'" or if the reader likes it better, simply, 
the '' Viney 

Marked No. 7 is the ''Bearing Wood,'" (Tragbare 
Holz,) which grows upon and out of the "thighs," 
'^ bows" and spurs, and which is to form the bows and 
spurs for the next season. 

Marked No. 8 are those branches which even after 
the " thighs" are once formed, are continually growing 
out of the " head," and often even protrude from the 
main stem below the surface, called the "Ground 
Shoots," (Boden Holz.) 

Marked No. 9 are those branches which gTow from 
the joints or buds in the " thighs," and which arc 
trimmed down to two or three buds in the fall or 
spring following their growth, and are called " Spurs" 
(Zapfen.) 

]\Iarked No. 10 are those branches immediately above 
the " thighs," which are early in spring trimmed down 
to six or eight, or even ten buds, and from which the 
main product of grapes is expected. During that year 
they are called '' Bow-hranches" (Bogenschoss,) or 
simply '■'■Bows" (Bogen,) as they are bent artificially 
hito bows, and so tied to the stake or post in the 
sprhig. 



12 THE vine-dresser's manual. 

Marked No. 11 are the ''Buds,'' or "i^>5"attlie 
joints, wHch if round and perfect, andlience promising 
a good harvest, are called ''Fruit Buds,^' (Frucht 
Aiigen,) and if pointed and meagre — " Wood Buds,''' 
(IIolz Augen.) Out of the "buds" grow " SI toots," 
(Ruthen,) which, when green, are tied up to the stake, 
and when matured are called " Wood." 

From the "Wood" grow the "Leaves,"" which afford 
the requisite shade, and perform an all-important part 
in the nourishment of the vine and in the growth and 
ripening of the fruit. 

Very near the buds spring forth those smaller 
branches, which I will call " twigs," which in literal 
translation of the German I might call "cross-teeth," 
(Aber Zahn.) 

Immediately opposite to the " Leaves," grow out of 
the same buds the " Grapes" — and where there are no 
grapes there will be found those little fibrous twigs 
called " Tendrils" which are a convenient appendage 
to the grapevine ; with them they twine themselves 
to objects near them, maintaining thereby their fruit 
and branches above ground, even in a wild state — an 
indication which practical vine-dressers have not failed 
to follow. Very often, too, after the grape has par- 
tially grown, the fruit gradually disappears, or " runs 
out," into these little "cord-twigs," or tendrils, and 
through this operation very often a crop very promis- 



NAMES OF THE VARIOUS PARTS. 13 

ing in tlie earlier portions of spring is much dimin- 
islied. Practical vine-dressers therefore smile at en- 
thusiasts, who count their grapes before this danger is 
past. These cord-twigs which thus spring from buds, 
which should bear grapes, are in German called 
Gabelein, "forks." I name them " Tendrilsy 

The fruit stalk comprising the centre axis with 
its branches, or the part of the cluster which remains 
after removing the berries, is called the " Comh^ 
Grapes which are ^''close herried^'' are best. 

The berries contain, when ripe, saccharine matter, 
(never yet brought to crystallization,) Avater, much 
coloring matter, and also substances more or less pe- 
culiar to taste and smell, according to the kind of 
grape and the season. 

The saccharine matter is the great basis of the fer- 
mentation, and therefore of the quality of the wine. 

The taste peculioT to each kind of grape arises from 
the inside coating of the skin of the berry, a matter 
easily tried by chewing and sucking this skin after the 
pulp is squeezed out. The peculiar smell also springs 
from substances immediately connected therewith, and 
the reason why wine Avhich passes through its first 
fermentation before the juice is pressed from the 
crushed grape, possesses the taste and smell peculiar 
to each grape in a greater degree, must be sought in 
the fact, that through this process the saccharine slime 



14 

is better dissolved, and because then the fermentation 
absorbs and acts more fully upon those peculiar sub- 
stances which adhere to the skin. 

The '' coloring matter" lies in the inside of the skin, 
and is easily developed, but much modified through 
the subsequent fermentation in the cellar, and wine 
treated as it is commonly in the United States, may 
eventually be colorless, as the coloring matter has no 
lasting effect, imless the fermentation takes place 
before pressing out the juice. 

Within the berry are the ^^ Pulp,''^ and the '^ Kernel. ''^ 
I have thus named all I deem essential, and the 
reader and myself will, I trust, hereafter better under- 
stand each other. 



LOCATION AND SOIL. 

The best location, if it is desired to produce good 
wine, is the southern exposure of a hill or hillock. 
There the vines get the proper sunshine, and are also 
properly protected against storms, especially the north 
and north-east winds. A location giving an exposure 
midway between east and south is also favorable, 
because such an exposure gets the sunshine from morn- 
ing till pretty late in the evening. 



LOCATION AND SOIL. 15 

A due eastern exposure is less favorable, since it 
loses the sun too early ; it is ever exposed to eastern 
winds, and is sensitive to frosts, even of the lighter 
sorts, because it receives the rays of the sun so very 
early and direct, as to subject such locations to injury 
from freezing nearly every year. 

Still worse is a western exposure, because it receives 
the sun till very late, and hence suffers from the 
chilly evening dews, which in this country are, com- 
paratively speaking, far colder than in Europe. Such 
an exposure must necessarily suffer from west winds, 
and is also more liable to be injured by hail. 

Hills and hillocks are far better for wine-culture 
than plains, which latter may produce greater quanti- 
ties of wine, but it is invariably of a poorer quality. 
Plains or hills whose soil, either on the surface or as a 
substratum, has yellow or blue clay soil, are not favor- 
able for vineyards, because upon such soils neither the 
atmosphere, nor the sun, rain or dew, can operate as 
they should, and hence there is danger that the vine 
will be affected with the wet-rot. The sun's rays hardly 
ever strike vines upon plains in the proper direction, 
so as to afford the required Avarmth, and the wood and 
the grapes are apt not to get the proper ripening ; such 
localities are also far more subject to winter and spring 
frosts, and to mildew. And, in addition, they must 
necessarily suffer more from destructive insects, snails, 
1* 



16 THE VINE-DRESSEll'S MANUAL. 

and animals of every description, as it is Avell known 
that sucli prevail more largely upon plains. 

There exists, however, a great difference between 
the foot, the middle, and the crest of hill-sides. The 
middle gives the best wine ; the foot is more or less 
subject to frost, and does not receive adequately the 
sun's rays ; while the crest is too much exposed to 
cold winds, in addition to its soil being very seldom 
good enough. 

Nor must neighboring objects be lost sight of in lo- 
cating vineyards. Favorable is everything which 
tends to temper and somewhat increase warmth, and 
vrhich protects against frosts, raw winds, and other 
casualties ; such as woods, buildings, high walls, and 
adjoining hills, provided they are in the rear or north 
of vineyards, and such localities will always produce 
the earliest ripe fruit and the best quality of wine. 

Injurious objects, when too near neighbors, such as 
lakes, ponds, swamps, and cold wet woods, are to be 
avoided, as from all these cold mists are apt to gener- 
ate. Hills, houses, trees, &c., should not be so near as 
to throw a shade over the vineyard. Vineyards 
should never be planted along deep valleys, hollows 
or gorges, which run east and west, since such almost 
invariably produce, in winter especially, constant 
drafts of wind, and they are more or less injurious. 
Grass and clover patches should not be too near, as 



LOCATION and" SOIL. 17 

they draw frosts, and smitliies or other large labora- 
tories or manufactories, are also to be avoided on ac- 
count of the smoke. 

Much depends, also, upon the quality of the soil, 
which changes often within a very small space of 
ground. A grapevine will grow, to be sure, where 
other plants grow, but the quality of the wine is 
always modified by the kind of soil. 

A heavy soil — one composed of sticky clay — will 
not permit sun and rain to penetrate, and may there- 
fore be termed a cold soil. In such, grapevines soon 
become weak and sickly ; in wet seasons their foliage 
is apt to have a yellowish tint ; the roots rot, and even 
where that should accidentally not take place, the qual- 
ity of the wine will never be very good. The only way 
to render such a soil fit for a vineyard, is by a copious 
application of lime or marl mixed with sand, — ^yet it 
may be done, but not efficiently, by mixing with it a 
sandy loam. Little, however, as vineyards will prosper 
in such cold soils, they will succeed just as little in too 
light sandy soils, unless well mixed with clay loam, or 
clayey marl. 

The soil most to be preferred in climates such as the 
Northern and Middle States of this Union, is that so 
generally prevailing rich loam, mixed with some gravel 
and marl. This kind of soil differs largely in various 
locations, and it will take a more or less lengthened 



18 THE VINE-DEESSEII'S MANUAL. 

period of iiidividaal experience to find the best loca- 
tions. We sliould, however, always examine into the 
more general admixtures of the soil Avhich we propose 
to select for our vineyard. There should always be 
some sand, some clay, some limestone, and. some gravel 
in it. Is there too little sand or gravelly limestone, 
then, the soil will soon become too clayey and cold, or 
if there is too much gi'avel and sand, then vegetation 
is impeded. Our soils almost invariably lack what 
European vineyard men prize so highly — gypsum — 
and this must be supplied by proper manures. The 
best wines in Europe gi'ow upon the hill-sides of lime 
or gypsum mountain ridges, whose formation is some- 
what mixed with sandstone. The color of the soil is 
not always a sure indication of the quality of the soil, 
but it may be assumed as a general rule, that soils for 
vineyards should neither be a very light yellow, nor 
a very brown red. To recapitulate, therefore : 

The altitude of a vineyard should neither be too 
high nor too low, as compared with the sun^ounding 
country. The exposure should be selected with due 
reference to giving full chance to the sun's rays during 
the entire day ; and the soil should neither be too rich 
nor too poor, — affording to the roots of the vine and to 
atmospheric influences an easy chance to penetrate. 



PKEPAKATION OF THE GKOUND. 19 

PKEPAEATION OF THE GROUND. 

This matter embraces the foundation of the whole 
subject of vine culture, and herein nearly every vine- 
yard yet planted in America is defective. Labor is so 
extremely high here, as to make it seem to us almost 
impossible to start a vineyard as it should be. Our 
very best vineyards are spaded up but two feet, while 
in many parts of Europe they spade up the ground 
to the depth of three and four, and even five feet. 
We never prepare the ground itself, during the preced- 
ing year, while in Europe it is sowed down in clover, 
for a few years previous, and well covered with good 
coatings of gypsum and manure. We trust to the vir- 
gin richness of our soil, and in our confidence are apt 
to forget that spading up the ground for several feet is 
done for other reasons besides mere fertilizing ; and 
that among these, for us especially, mast be a sinking 
below the subsoil the present surface or upper soil, 
which being full of decomposed vegetable matter, is 
the hot-bed of all manner of insects. The spading 
up and turning of the surface soil beneath its present 
subsoil, is of the greatest importance, because thereby 
the " Foot Boots" may penetrate downwardly, and thus 
give to the whole grapevine not only its vigor, but 
also its great safeguard against too sudden atmospheric 
changes, or long-continued droughts. And I may in 



20 THE vine-dkesser's manual. 

connection with this, here rcm.ark upon an erroneous 
suggestion, which I have noticed in some agricultural 
journals. They suggest a longer '' stem." I do not 
think that the stem should be much longer than twenty 
inches, but think it of the first importance that the 
foot roots should penetrate deeply. 

The ground intended for a vineyard should be well 
manured the previous year, either by a coating of lime, 
where that kind of manuring is proper, or by gypsum, 
where it can be had ; or by ploughing under some green 
sward, such as clover ; or at least by a good and thor- 
ough coat of manure, straw, or even leaves. 

Of the ground thus prepared, the surface should, for 
the depth of twelve inches at least, be sunk beneath 
twelve inches of soil immediately underneath. This is 
best done, if the ground be loamy, with the spade, or 
if stony with the mattock. For this purpose a trench 
is first dug four feet wide, and to the depth to which 
the vine-dresser is going to spade up and trench his vine- 
yard. Into this first trench, say four feet wide and two to 
four feet deep, and as long as the vineyard may be, say 
two hundred feet, is then thrown twelve inches of the 
surface soil (using the very best steel spades), and by 
driving the spade into the ground as nearly perpendicu- 
lar as possible, and not slanting, as lazy laborers are apt 
to do ; for thus alone can this top soil be spaded up to 
the depth of at least twelve inches. The loose soil 



PREPARATIOX OF THE GROUND. 21 

wliicli is left in tlie trench, having crumbled from the 
S23ade, must then be carefully scraped into the first 
trench, and then the twelve inches of subsoil must 
again be similarly spaded up and thrown upon the 
jireviously spaded up surface soil, and so on, each 
twelve inches to the depth required. And the loose soil 
left in the bottom, must also again be carefully shoveled 
up and thrown upon the other ground. Thus trench 
after trench will be regularly formed, imtil the whole 
allotted piece is finished. Let the reader bear in mind, 
as tlie sine qua non of a good vineyard, that it is not a 
mixture of the surface with the subsoil that's wanted ; 
but that the subsoil cover, for twelve inches at least, 
and twenty to thirty if possible, the original surface 
soil, and the deeper this is done (always in reason) the 
better. ' It is far better, view it in whatever light w^e 
may, to have a small, good vineyard, than a large, 
poor one. 

The ground thus spaded up should be permitted to 
settle well, before the vines are planted. One or two 
good rains will generally accomplish this. The best 
method is, however, to trench in the fall, and plant in 
the spring. 

There are other methods of preparing the ground. 
One is to make large holes, throwing the surface soil 
underneath and planting the vines therein. 

Deep ploughing and subsoiling is also frequently 



22 THE vine-dressek's manual. 

adopted. I have tried all tliese methods. The first 
vineyard I set out by merely digging holes ; another 
by ploughing some sixteen inches deep, with a large 
plough, drawn by four yoke of oxen, and followed with 
a subsoil plough, drawn by a pair of horses, and another 
by trenching as above suggested, thirty inches deep. 
As to results I can only say, that the first planted 
vineyard is now being dug up, because it was always 
liable to every disease which happened to prevail in the 
season, having hardly yielded a fair compensation for 
the labor expended ; the subsoiled vineyard does bet- 
ter, but I have no hopes of its lasting more than twenty 
years ; while a well-trenched vineyard, to the depth of 
thirty-six inches, with such virgin soil as we have in 
America, should, and doubtless would last — if otherwise 
properly managed — ^eighty to one hundred years. I 
shall hereafter trench any vineyards I may plant, at 
least thirty-six inches, and recommend the same course 
to all others. 

I am informed that there is now being constructed in 
Cincinnati, a large plough to be drawn by six yoke of 
oxen, and warranted to plough the ground twenty-eight 
inches deep. I have not seen this latest improvement; 
and can only say that unless this plough does leave a 
clean furrow, at least twelve inches wide of the prom- 
ised depth, it will not answer. The large ploughs I have 
seen do not accomplish this. They break the ground 



PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. 28 

up, mix it somewhat, bat do not turn the top soil under. 
This, for reasons already stated, is not enough. 

It is hardly necessary for me to say, that the proce- 
dure must be varied with the ground. Some soils are 
naturally rich to the required depth, though I should 
fear such soils for vineyards. Others are very rocky 
and must be worked with the mattock and grul^bing 
hoe. Good sense will in each case dictate the requisite 
mode, if we will but bear in mind the great point in a 
vineyard view. This is to get the surfiice soil beneath 
the subsoil, so as to afford from the very start of the 
vine, to the "roots" at the ^'-fooi^ of the vine, an easy, 
healthy and steady downward growth. They are the 
life of the vine, and their continued health is most im- 
portant. If they arc but thrifty, then we need not fear 
but what the "side" and "surface roots" will always 
grow and prosper in due time and in proper manner. 

In vineyards along side hills, it is well to use the 
stones generally found therein, for the purpose of erect- 
ing walls to prevent " washing." These walls should 
have their foundation deep enough, so as to be out of 
the reach of heavy winter frosts. They should be so 
slantingly laid up, as to bear properly " to land." Such 
walls are not only useful, but they are an ornament to 
the vineyard and the general landscape. If properly 
laid up, they last as long as the vineyard. 

Where stones are lacking, it may be necessary to 



24 THE VINE-DRESSER'S MANUAL. 

raise banks by sodding tliem with green sward. They 
are not as good as stone walls, since the green sward is 
apt to subject the neighboring vines to frost, but the 
ground must be protected from washing even at this 
risk. I take it for granted, however, that there are very 
few side hills indeed, where by trenching deep enough, 
there will not be the required quantity of stones. 

I have thus indicated the general rules by which 
we must be guided in the preparation of the ground in 
each special case, and I must now only add, that it is 
a great but frequent error to suppose that throwing old 
logs, brushwood or stones, underneath, promotes the 
growth of vines. They may not hinder them, if well 
packed with ground, but great care should be taken not 
to leave vacuities, as they are sure to impart to the " foot 
roots" an unhealthy state. Vines should always be 
planted after the ground is well settled, and not before. 
The ground should also be well harrowed, so as to ren- 
der it perfectly even and in complete cultivating order. 

Before dismissing this chapter I would add, that 
according to my experience, there is, in fact, but little 
actual difference in the cost between a well-trenched 
vineyard and one slovenly laid out. To trench an acre 
three feet deep, is worth in common soil $100 ; two feet 
deep, $75. With large ploughs, followed by subsoilers, 
an acre costs about $25. To dig holes, merely costs 
about $15. But mark it, you save in a well-trenched 



PEEPARATION OF THE GROUND. 25 

vineyard each year, for three years, one hoeing, at 
least, and you get a good crop in the fourth year. 
Your vines grow up regular, as in such a vineyard but 
few miss ; and lastly, let me say to you, that having 
started right, you are apt to keep right, and are there- 
fore every way sure to have a good vineyard. 



HOW TO MARK OUT A VINEYARD, AND GET IT READY 
FOR THE \aNES. 

The ground being properly prepared and settled, as 
previously suggested, the next thing to be done is the 
staking out of the vineyard. To do this, it is well to 
prepare as many little marking sticks (say twelve inches 
long and half an inch square, pointed at one end) as 
there are to be grapehills in the vineyard ; for instance, 
an acre planted four feet apart each way, about 2,200 
hills. 

The next thing to determine is, how far apart it is in- 
tended to have the rows. There is no settled rule upon 
this subject. I have seen, in Europe, thrifty vineyards 
one foot apart, and I have seen them ten feet apart. 
The four by four may, however, be said to be the pre- 
vailing and most approved custom. I have myself 
lately adopted five by five, and I like the appearance 
of it very well. In Italy, I am told, vines are planted 



26 THE vine-dkesser's manual. 

twenty feet apart, and then they alternate with fruit 
trees, in the intermediate space, — say a row of fruit 
trees, and ten feet from it a row of vines, and so on. 

I cannot, without occupying too much space, enter 
into a discussion of the relative merits of wide or nar- 
row planting. I can only say that, in my humble 
opinion, it is best not to plant narrower than four by 
four, nor wider than six by six. A vineyard spaded 
up to the proper depth has cost so much as to be in 
itself a veto on too wide planting, and I may as well 
admit that I am no friend to mammoth vineyards. In 
no business is slovenliness more pernicious than in that 
of a vintner, and I cannot get clear of the impression 
that large vineyards cannot receive in all points that 
close attention which is required to raise good wine, 
and to guard the vines against premature decay. It is 
to be expected that various methods will prevail, ac- 
cording to locality, but I doubt not that four by four 
will prove the most generally applicable. In fact, we 
we may say, that such is actually the case. Let each 
follow in this matter his own good sense, and adopt, 
from the best lights around him, the proper width, 
bearing in mind the humidity or dryness of his soil, 
and securing the proper light and shade. 

This done, get good strong cords, long enough to 
reach as often as necessary across the entire vineyard. 
Maxk off one cord by putting in a slip of muslin at each 



HOW TO MARK OUT A VINEYARD. 27 

of the required distances (say four or five feet apart). 
This is called the marking cord. 

These cords and the little sticks being ready, let the 
vineyard be laid out, as near as possible, into a square 
piece of ground. Then starting at the northwest cor- 
ner, fastening the marking cord there, draw it from 
thence to the northeast corner, putting the little sticks 
into the ground at the places marked by muslin in the 
marking cord ; then fastening the marking cord at the 
northeast corner, draw it thence to the southeast corner, 
again putting in the sticks at the proper places, and thus 
on firom the southeast corner to the southwest, and again 
from southwest to the place of beginning. This marks 
the outer rows. This work should be carefuHy done, so 
as to get the vineyard into regular squares. 

Then draw parallel cords north and south from 
each of the little sticks on the rows, which stand in 
the row between the northwest and northeast corner, 
to the sticks in the row from the southwest to the 
southeast corner. 

Across these parallel cords, which are fastened, the 
marking cord, east and west, as in the annexed cut, 
is stretched crosswise, and held thereby a person at each 
end, while two or more hands put in the marking sticks 
at those places where the marking cord crosses each of 
the pai-allel cords. As soon as the sticks are put in at 



28 



THE vine-dresser's MANUAL. 



these cord crossings, and one row is formed, this cross 
or rather marking cord is removed and again held over 
another parallel cord, so as again to form another row, 
and so on to the end. Fig. 2 will illustrate this fully. 
Almost complete exactness is thus obtained. 



Fig. 2. 



Northwest corner. 



Northeast comer. 



n 



Southwest comer. 



Southeast comor. 



Short rows should, if possible, be avoided, and where 
this cannot be done, they should be so fixed as not to 
strike the eye offensively. The direction of the ro^vs 
should be such as to allow the sun to have the greatest 
effect — at the same time so as to prevent washing by 
rains. 



THE PROPAGATION OF VINES. 29 



THE PROPAGATION AND MULTIPLICATION OF VINES, 
AND HOW TO PLANT THEM. 

We have now presented to the reader various mat- 
ters, such as location and preparation of the ground, 
and we are now ready to actually start the vineyard. 
How to do this, whether with cuttings or slips, or with 
roots, or from the seed, are questions which sometimes 
perplex speculative minds. 

No plant, that I can now think of, is capable of so 
varied means of propagation as the grapevine. A 
grapevine can be propagated from the seed, from cu.t- 
tings, by "layers," and by inoculation and grafting. 

It is right and proper that those who have the means, 
should experiment by raising vines from the seedj as 
thereby we will get a greater variety of grapevines, 
and such as will be permanently suitable to each re- 
spective locality ; but it is not advisable, for any one 
desirous to set out a vineyard, to attempt to get his 
vines from the seed, because it will take from five to 
ten years thus to get bearing vines, and because it is 
next to impossible to get anything like regular rows by 
such a method. 

A very easy and advantageous multiplication of 
vines may also be obtained by laying down, or sinking, 

(29) 



80 THE VINE-DRESSER^S MANUAL. 

from existing and growing vines, brandies, or side or 
ground shoots, as shown in Fig. 3. 



Fig. 8. 




The braneh marked a is a summer shoot, to raLse 
grape roots, to be put down in June or July. That 
marked Z) is a permanent layer, to be put down in the 
fall, winter or spring. 

Persons having grape arbors, or vineyards, may 
thus multiply and spread them, in a very few years, 
over a very large space of ground. If it is intended 
to leave these layers in the ground where they are sunk, 
it is necessary that they should be laid down as deep 
as cuttings are, say twenty inches; but where these 
"layers" are made with a view to have them form 
roots, with a view to be transplanted to other locali- 
ties, they may be sunk but about eight inches. Per- 
manent "layers" are a convenient, and much to be 
reconmaended method, to fill up any vacancies in a 



THE PROPAGATION OF VINES. 81 

vineyard, whicli may arise eitlier from the failure of 
tlie planted cutting, or from some old grapevine being 
seriously injured by storms, or other casualties. Such 
" layers " must, after the first year, be half cut off from 
the parent vine, and after the second, entirely, or else 
they would injure the old vine. Those that are intended 
for transplanting, after they shall have formed roots, 
must be cut off the same season they are planted in the 
flxll. I refer to the wood cut, Fig. 3, which I trust will 
convey the proper meaning. 

Grafting and inoculating grapevines is done under 
the same rules as grafting and inoculating fruit trees 
generally. The graft should, however, always be in- 
serted a few inches under the ground into the stem. 
I doubt whether either grafting or budding is to be 
recommended, as a general rule, to raise a vineyard. 

The safest and most advantageous propagation and 
multiplication of vines, in planting a vineyard, is 
through cuttings. They are easier obtained, and are 
least expensive. I am free to say, that I prefer cut- 
tings to grape roots, even at the same price, and for 
the following reasons : They remain in that spot, where 
they were first planted, and there at once permanently 
form their roots. These first virgin roots, especially at 
the foot, can never again be supplied by any second 
growth. And again, grape roots are always, when 

planted for sale, set out in the very richest ground, 
2 



32 



THE VINE-DRESSEIl'S MANUAL. 



si^h as is loamy and well cultivated ; and it is easy to 
imagine, that a vine, taken from sucli old, ricli soil, and 
then transplanted into the raw, newly -spaded vineyard 
ground, must necessarily receive a shock to their 
growth, which must render them more short-lived than 
vines grown from cuttings. A cutting remains in the 

Fig. 4. 



Q 



<J 



Better cutting. 



Best cutting, 
with bud on oldwood. 



vineyard, and its virgin roots are not torn off or in- 
jured. This I regard of great importance. Grape 
roots may bear one year earlier than cuttings ; but 
beyond that much-coveted, and at best doubtful first 
year, every consideration is in favor of the cutting. 



THE PROPAGATION OF VINES. 33 

Great care, however, should be taken in tlie selection 
of cuttings, and the same must be said of '' roots." This 
cut will assist the reader in guarding against imposition. 
It represents three different qualities of cuttings. 
We may lay down the following general rules : 
1st. The vine from which you select your cutting 
should be healthy, and those not more than ten nor less 
than three years old. 

2d. The wood of the cutting should be soundly ripe 
of the early spring's growth of the previous year, and 
not of the second growth, which appears in or after the 
month of June. The part nearest to the old wood will 
rarely fail to grow. Cut C represents such a cutting. 
3d. The more joints or buds within a given length 
the better. They should be closer together near the 
lower end than the upper. 

4th. The more compact the stemwood, the finer the 
sap vessels, and the smaller the pith^ the better. Coarse 
reedy cuttings, such as Cut A, are worth but little. 

5th. Each cutting should be not less than twenty nor 
more than twenty -four inches long. 

6th. Old wood of more than one year's growth is 
ansuitable for cuttings. 

Cut with a sharp knife smoothly and nicely just 
below the bud at the foot, being careful not to injure 
the joint ; but above the upper bud, which is to form 
the "head," leave about two inches of wood, so as to 



34 

form a protection to tlie cutting when in tlie ground, 
and that it may be held thereby when planting. 

In taking off the first cutting from the old wood, the 
foot should be the very first bud near, or, if possible, 
upon the old wood, as in the best cutting, marked 
letter 0. 

That proper caution should be used to keep the cut- 
tings right side up into the ground, will, I am sure, be 
understood by all. The upper part of the cutting may 
easily be ascertained by the upward pointing of the 
bud. 

The planting is now performed ; if by cuttings, two 
to each hill, sometimes by making holes with a hoe or 
spade as near as possible to the marhiiig sticky which 
remains in its place. 

The cuttings are then put in and covered carefully 
with earth. 

But there is ai^other, much speedier and equally good 
method. Have one or two '■'■ stilts'^ made, about four 
feet long and three inches thick, pointed with an iron 
socket of about twenty-two inches length. See Figs. 
5 and 6. 

With these stilts the holes are made close to the 
marking sticks two feet deep, and by moving the stilt 
from side to side the hole can be made sufficiently 
large. 

There may be one hole to each cutting, or both cut- 



THE PROPAGATIOIS' OF VINES. 



35 



tings may be inserted at once in the same liole, taking 
care to keep them separated by placing the fingers be- 
tween them. 

These holes are made as nearly perpendicular as 
may be, and the cuttings are inserted deep enough to 
have the upper bud one half an inch below the surface 



Fia. 6. 



Fig. 5. 




of the ground. The cut, Fig. 7, will illustrate the 
position. 

The cuttings are then held with one hand, while with 
tlie other loose earth or sand is poured in, around and 



S6 



THE vine-dresser's manual. 



between them. Then pour water into the hole suffi- 
cient to "slmie" in the sand compactly around the 
cuttings, at the same time avoid pressing with the feet 
near to the hole, as this renders the ground hard. 

If the holes are dug with the hoe or spade, the cut- 
tings may be put in slanting always /ro?7i the hill, if the 
surflice is not level, and slimed in as above. 



Fig. T. 




If the planting is made with grape roots, the same 
care required by fruit trees should be given to have 
all the bruised roots cut with a sharp knife, and the foot 
roots carefully surrounded with fine earth, Avhile they 
are spread in a natural position, and afterwards water is 
poured around them. 

No grape root or cutting should be planted after the 
15th of May. They should be in the ground as much 



WHAT SPECIES TO CULTIVATE. 37 

earlier as possible, if the season be favorable and the 
ground is in proper order. Vineyards should never 
be set out and planted in wet, slushy weather. 



WHAT SPECIES OF GRAPEVINE SHALL WE CULTIVATE ? 

In Europe this question is, and has ever been a 
much disputed point. The great mass of the vintners 
follow the traditions of their forefathers, and the vari- 
ous governments as well as the societies for the im- 
provement of wine have found it one of their most 
insurmountable obstacles to overcome these traditional 
predilections of the vintners. In Europe the govern- 
ments have even gone so far as to prohibit by law the 
planting of certain species of grape vines. These wine 
*' reformers" through government, have, however, not 
always been right. And yet it would be wrong not 
to admit that they have done much good. All of us 
know how easily a theorist, who has made himself the 
" Sir Oracle" of a neighborhood, may succeed in get- 
ting his notions adopted by other theorists, and Europe 
is not exempt from similar results. In 1832, when I 
left Germany, the "Eiessling" was the fashionable and 
much approved grape. Four years ago when I return- 
ed, it was then the '^ Traminer," and in 1853, I heard 
one of the very wine reformers say, "that he actually 



88 

believed, tliat a return to the ' old sorts' would stop tlie 
progress of the grape sickness." If we take the trouble 
to inquire, we should find that the "old sorts" are 
grapevines adopted after much experience, and that 
that experience, although the reasons for it may have 
been lost, is often worth more than untried experiments. 
I am not ojDposed to all experiments, but I do think 
that persons who set out " vineyards" had better fol- 
low the most approved beaten track of their time. 
The men to experiment are nursery men. In Europe, 
there are hundreds of varieties of grapes. Kot only 
has each locality its own favorite, but they frequently 
again change with each generation. These varieties 
were all originally imported into, and exchanged be- 
tween different portions of Europe. Hungary got some 
of its vines from Greece and Asia Minor ; Germany 
from Italy and Hungary ; France and Spain from all 
parts of the Mediterranean ; and then again have all 
exchanged with each other. A grape approved by 
one country would be rejected in the other, and vice 
versa. You can find the Hungarian Tookay in Ger- 
many, a generally condemned grape, no doubt origin- 
ally similar to the Malaga grape, and we may, on the 
other hand, find the white and red Burgundy grape 
much outside of France. Each imported grape was 
again changed in each locality by soil, climate and 
exposure. 



WHAT SPECIES TO CULTIVATE. 39 

In tliis country, but two wine grapes have yet suc- 
ceeded in establishing a permanent reputation, to wit : 
— the Isabella and Catawba. 'No foreign grape has 
yet been adopted by us, — or it may perhaps be bet- 
ter said, none of them has yet adopted us. I have 
three several times imported grapevines from my fa- 
therland, — once also (in 1842) grape seeds; and in 
1850, I brought with me, at much personal inconve- 
nience and expense, a bundle of small fruit trees and 
grapevines, weighing some fifty pounds. I carried 
them myself from steamboat to steamboat, from car to 
car ; I dipped them into the !Ni eckar, the Ehine, the 
Weser, the Delaware, the Cumberland, and the Ohio, 
not omitting even to wet them with the water distilled 
from the sea by the steamers ; but all in vain, so far as 
the grapevines were concerned. My pears, apricots, 
plums, cherries, raspberries, have all grown finely — 
but the grapevines and gooseberries would not be na- 
turalized. A few sprouted, but only for a season. I 
shall not be discouraged, but will try it again as soon 
as they shall have a good wine season in Europe, 
in which their wood and seed ripen fully. 

On the whole, then, I would recommend to all who 
may set out vineyards, to plant good sound Catawba 
cuttings, taking care to buy only from healthy vine- 
yards. That grape (be it native or imported) is the 
best yet tried. Let all, however, experiment upon a 



40 THE vine-dresser's manual. 

separate patch, of ground, and on a small scale, tlirougli 
Catawba seeds from especially healthy grapes, anp 
through grafts, and by planting cuttings from Catawba 
vineyards whose general character has been changed and 
modified ; and such as are improved by a special good 
location, a special good soil, a special good climate, or 
a special good cultivation. Let some of us also keep 
importing and cultivating grapevines, either from our 
Western wilds or Western Europe, or any other place. 
Thus, and thus only, will we get healthy varieties. 
Experience will, as in Europe, ultimately settle down 
on a few favorites, which will be called by many 
local names, each of which will have its admirers. 
And among these, the varieties of the Catawba 
which w^ill hereafter arise, will always maintain their 
ground. 

The Isabella grows well in some localities in the 
United States, especially New York ; but in the West- 
ern States, the Catawba is preferable. 

A most excellent plan in furtherance of getting va- 
rieties, and one at which a good deal of money may 
be made, is the establishment of a grapevine nursery. 
Every vineyard owner should devote a small patch to 
it, Avhere to set out annually, both for sale and a sup- 
ply for his own vineyards, such cuttings as may ex- 
hibit improved bearing qualities. Constant experi- 
ments should also be made with the seeds from extra 



TEEATMENT OF A YOUNG VINEYARD. 41 

healthy grapes. Through such means we should soon 
have decidedly improved varieties of grapes. 

If any one is desirous of starting a grape nursery, I 
would suggest to him the following as a certain and 
approved method : Have an arbor near your house, 
lead a few branches of the gTapevine, well supplied with 
good healthy grapes, when nearly ripe, into a room to be 
warmed, and through this warmth dry the grapes upon 
the vine, until they are completely shrivelled up. The 
kernels are taken out and dried in the air, and 
then planted out, five inches apart, in a bed, and cov- 
ered with about a half inch of ground. Around and 
upon the plants which may grow, the ground is grad- 
ually raised, until after two or three years the stem 
begins to form itself. When ready for transplanting, 
it assumes the color of common yellow or brown 
leather. Plants thus obtained are as good as cut- 
tings, and will be sure to produce constantly new va- 
rieties. 



TREATMENT OF A YOUNG VINEYARD THE FIRST 
THREE YEARS. 

Li the First Year. 

The new vineyard must, during the summer, be hoed 
twice at least, and kept clear of weeds. Should there 



42 

be severe drouglit, it would be well to water tlie 
plants. If heavy rains sliould prevail, by wbicli the 
plants should be covered with ground too deeply, then 
they should be eased with great care, so as not to in- 
jure, or expose too suddenly to the hot rays of the sun 
the extremely tender sprouts, usual in such cases. As 
soon as the sprouts have grown an inch or two, it is 
well to stir the ground immediately around or near 
the vine. It is very beneficial to the young vine, always 
to have the ground well loosened and pulverized around 
the head. In the fall, the plants which have sprouted, 
are covered in colder climates. In southern Ohio, this 
is hardly necessary. 

Such vines, or cuttings, as fail to grow, must be sup- 
plied in October following with grape roots, or new 
cuttings, though grape roots are, in such cases, to be 
preferred, as it gives more uniformity to the vineyard. 
It is, therefore, well to plant in a separate grape nurs- 
ery, an extra number of cuttings ; and the most thrifty 
of these may then be used as the supplies for those 
vacancies. 

In the Second Year. 

As soon as the weather will admit in the early spring, 
the branches which may have grown during the pre- 
ceding year, are trimmed down to one bud, whether 



TREATMENT OF A YOUNG VINEYAED. 



43 



the cuttings have produced more than one sprout or 
not. That one bud should be upon or near the old 
wood at the junction of the sprout trimmed off, and 
ultimately becomes the ''Headf' the formation and 
preservation of which is a matter of great moment, and 
the object of trimming down to one bud is to provide 
early for a proper "head" for each grapevine. 



Fig. a 



Fia. 9. 





'^^^?^.^ 



Second Spring before Pruning. 



Second Spring after Pruning. 



The earth is also removed from around the stem and 
the surface roots cut off. 

Fig. 8 represents the vine as it will appear, if well 
grown, before the trimming in the second year, and 
with the earth removed for eight to ten inches around 
the stem, so as to remove the surface roots which may 



4:4: THE vixe-dresser's manual. 

have grown. The branches and roots are to be cut 
where marked. 

Fig. 9 represents the vine after trimming. " 

The sprouts which grow during the second year need 
not be tied to stakes but left to be moved freely by the 
winds, as this tends to strengthen the entire vine. Yery 
few of such sprouts are ever blown off. 

During this summer the vineyard is hoed twice. 

Good vintners recommend pinching off the ends of 
the sprouts after they have grown to the length of 
twelve or fifteen inches. 

There is no doubt that this promotes the growth and 
ripening of the small wood, and it is also likely that 
thereby the more thrifty vines will bear a few grapes 
the season following ; but this practice is a hurrying 
process, which may be adopted where the vines are very 
forward, but had better, as a general thing, be avoided. 
From the foot of each leaf stalk grow, during the sum- 
mer, latteral shoots, which should be pinched off after 
they form three leaves just beyond the second leaf, dur- 
ing this and subsequent years, as directed in the part 
relating to summer pruning. 

Just as bad is the practice to trim the vine during 
the second summer, with a view to make one or two 
sprouts grow into long branches for bearirg wood for 
the year following. I would say to all, don't hurry 
your vines, if you want them to last well. 



TREATMENT OF A YOUNG VINEYARD. 



45 



In the Third Ye 



ear. 



The vines are again trimmed down to the lowest 
bud, as in Fig. 10. At this time, it is well to apply 
special manures, and to do everything tending to the 
healthy development of the vine, as the season follow- 
ing the first crop is expected. Some vintners leave 



Fio 10. 



Fio. 11. 



'' ^4^"^ 



f 



~..":^*-r^ V 



.L: 







Third Spring after Pruning. 




M 



^i^ 



. -^.vrli f-' 



< 






' .■<- ■ ^5^ 



Pruned with a view to premature bearing. 



this season one or two ''spurs," as in Fig. 11, and by 
extra manure push their vineyards into a premature 
crop. Every grape thus obtained, will eventually have 
to be paid for very dearly indeed; because nothing 
tends more to the premature decay of vines, than such 
an early deflowering of it. 



46 THE VINE-DEESSER's MANUAL. 

Ill this year, too, one of the vines is removed, if both 
cuttings have grown in any one hill. The healthiest 
vine is retained, the other is removed. This should be 
done with extreme care toward the vine which is in- 

m 

tended to remain. The grape roots thus taken out, 
may be used to supply vacancies, or new vineyards, or 
be sold to others. 

The vineyard may now be supplied with "stakes," and 
also preparation may be made for whatever system of 
trimming may be adopted, (for which see the chapter fol- 
lowing,) and to the stakes are fastened three or four of 
the sprouts, which grow during the ensuing summer. 
Should more than three or four grow, they must be re- 
moved by pinching them off. During the third year, 
I have found it not amiss, to pinch off the ends of 
vines after August, when they have grown four or 
more feet high, so as to ripen the wood. This should 
be done only after the shoots have begun to turn brown 
near the "head." 

During this summer, the vineyard is also hoed 
twice ; and especially is it good to give it an extra 
hoeing in the fall, so as to avoid an early spring hoeing, 
which on account of frosts had better be delayed till 
after the 10th or 12th of May, with young vines espe- 
cially. 

In the fourth year the vineyard, if well treated, will 
be in good bearing order. The vines should be 



TREATMENT OF A YOUNG VINEYARD. 



47 



trimmed as in Fig. 12. The spurs should not be 
shorter than six or eight inches, nor longer than twelve 
inches. Our vintners are apt to trim so as to leave 
too much bearing wood the first bearing year. Let all 
remember the rule, which pervades almost every part 
of vegetable, and even animal life, that the age to 
which animals or vegetables attain, is governed by the 
length of time in which they arrive at maturity. The 
slower the early growth, the longer and healthier is 

Fio. 12. 




after life. Living too fast in early youth, is sure to 
produce early old age. 

To trim the vine with "bows" this season, I regard 
as a very pernicious policy no matter how thrifty the 
vines may be. 

Nor can I recommend the common practice of plant- 
ing cabbage, corn, or other impoverishing crops in 



48 

young vineyards. Daring the first year, such strangers 
may be admitted; but forever thereafter, nothing but 
grapevines have any business in a vineyard. 

As a general rule, I may add, that the cleaner 
the vines and ground are at all times kept, the 
better. Never go into a vineyard in wet weather, nor 
trim the vines while they are much wet. Keep the 
ground mellow, and in the most superior tillable order. 
Keep out of a vineyard, unless you have special busi- 
ness in it. The less one walks about in it, the better. 
To walk about a vineyard, after a rain, must do it 
serious injury. Keep visitors and the idly curious also 
out of your vineyard. No man or woman has any 
business in a vineyard, except the vine-dresser, and he 
only when working or tending it. 



The manner of putting these in, and the manner oj 
staking out a vineyard^ is a matter of more moment than 
is generally supposed. Vineyards are often much dis- 
figured by too heavy and unsightly stakes, resembling 
fence-rails, which are also injurious from the heavy 
shade they cast. Stakes should be perfectly straight, 
well seasoned, and not more than two inches square. 



"vineyard stakes." 49 

Thej should be made of hard wood, such as oak or 
locustf Care should be had that the roots of the vines 
be not injured when putting them in. In Europe, 
stakes are made about one inch square, often of pine 
wood, and taken out in the fall, and reset every spring. 
This treatment preserves them much. 

The stakes must be set in to suit the particular trim 
of the grapevine, so as to afford fair access to warmth 
and light. 

Where four thighs, or rather four long spurs, are 
carried to each vine — (a favorite mode of trimming of 
late in Grermany, and one well suited to level, heavy 
soils)— the thighs should then be only twelve to four- 
teen inches long, with spurs on them for bearing wood, 
and no bows, leaving upon each spur four or five buds, 
or twenty altogether on the vine. The stakes need not 
be more than three feet high above the ground. They 
are then set out thus : 

Stake. 

o 
Head. 
Stake, o O o Stake. 1^* South. 

o 

Stake 

Where three thighs are carried — the favorite Elsa- 
3 



50 THE vine-dresser's manual. 

tian and Swabian methods — the stakes should be five 
and a half feet high above ground and set out tjhus : 

o Stake. 
Stake, o O Head. 1^=* South. 
o Stake. 

Where two thighs are carried, the stakes should be 
six feet high above ground, and set out thus : 

Head. 
Stake, o O o Stake. |^" South. 



being careful to get them into perfectly straiglit rows, 
and one foot each way from the head. This method 
and the trellis described below, are the two which I 
would recommend as the best, and are those which I 
have adopted. The trellis, however, is better adapted 
to the growing of table grapes than grapes for wine. 

A method very much pi'acticed in the vicinity of 
Cincinnati, is to have a single stake with one " bow" 
and one "spur ;" the spur being trimmed down to two 
or three buds, the shoots from which furnish the spur 
and bow for the next year. See Fig. 13. 

The general principles laid down for pruning on two 
stakes may be easily modified and applied to this and 
other methods. 

Where one thigh is carried, with one "bow" and 
two or three spurs, it is customary to have three stakes 



VINEYARD STAKES. 



.1 



to eacli vine — one about six feet above ground, j ast at 
the head, to which the bow is fastened, and two others 
about four feet long above ground, and a foot each way- 
north and south from it. 



Fia. 18. 




The prevailing mode in the Palatinate along the 
Rhine, is beginning to be largely adopted in the United 

States. 




52 THE vine-dresser's manual. 

This cut, Fig. 14, represents several modes of train- 
ing upon trellises. As they are all reducible to the 
same general principles of trimming, the particular 
shape is unimportant. 

a Represents the top cross piece sixteen feet long and 
five feet above the ground. 

h Represents cross piece of same length and two feet 
above ground. 

A vineyard thus staked out, with the method of 
trimming adopted in these pages, I regard as decidedly 
the best. It may be the most expensive at first, but 
it must eventually be adopted generally in the United 
States, because it will suit more localities than any 
other. 

The easiest way to put vineyard stakes into the 
ground is to have a good sound, tough piece of oak 
wood, as described in a former chapter for putting in 
cuttings, say four feet long, three inches through at 
the upper end, tapering toward the lower end, and 
supplied with a heavy iron socket about eighteen 
inches long. With this holes are punched into the 
ground, at the proper places, about eighteen inches 
deep for the long, heavy stakes, and about ten to 
twelve inches for the shorter and lighter ones, and into 
these holes the stakes are inserted, having been pre- 
viously sharpened. Through this method few or no 
roots are injured. Charring the ends of the stakes is 



"vineyard stakes." 53 

an excellent preservative, and I have heard the refuse 
oil purchased at gas-works also favorably spoken of. 

The stakes should be well rammed in, and fastened 
by punching the earth to them at the surface of the 
ground. Every spring they should be carefully re- 
fastened, after being straightened up, and examined to 
see whether the part in the ground is sound yet. 
Those of which it may be feared that they will not last 
through the season, had better be taken out and reset 
by putting the sound end into the ground, or replaced 
by new ones. Nothing is more annoying and injuri- 
ous than to have a whole lot of vines blown down after 
every heavy shower. 

The plan of setting stakes in a vineyard, sprung, 
doubtless, from the observation made, that a grape- 
vine, and especially its fruit, is very apt to get injured 
if left to the mercy of the winds and rain, and dragged 
about in the mud. The fruit by being elevated from 
the ground is less subject to the depredations of 
insects and rabbits, as well as less liable to rot and 
other diseases. I have already indicated that one 
great object is also so to set off the vine, with its foliage, 
&c., as to admit, according to the particular manner of 
training, the proper effects of sun and atmosphere. 

A vineyard badly and slovenly staked out will be 
an eye-sore to a good vintner, even at a distance ; 
while, on the other hand, one well and artistically 



54 

staked out, will gladden the eye of every one that sees 
it. A slovenly vintner is certain to be detected in this 
very point, and I want no better evidence of a good 
vintner than to see him particularly nice in staking 
out his vineyard. 

What system of trimming to adopt for the vines is 
oftener a matter of fancy than of actual propriety. I 
have, in this chapter, treated of various methods ; in 
the next I shall particularly describe that which, in my 
opinion, deserves universal adoption. The reader can, 
from the cuts given in this and the following chapter, 
find a safe guide, whether he should choose the method 
recommended by me, or any other. I do not think it 
necessary to describe these others more fully, because 
I am satisfied that any intelligent reader can, if he 
will but read carefully this and the next chapter, and 
if he will apply the general rules laid down practically, 
vary the trim of his vineyard to suit the particular 
locality, or fancy, as the case may be. I wish to avoid, 
also, if possible, perplexing the reader, and I therefore 
indicate to him the method which my own experience 
points out as the best. At the same time, I have also 
named other methods, upon which it may be well to 
'''"experiment^'''' after the reader shall have had some ex- 
perience in vine-dressing. 



TRIMMING YOUNG BEARING VINES. 65 

TRIMMING YOUNG BEARING VINES IN THE FOURTH 
YEAR. 

This TDrancb. of a Yine-dresser's labors, whether for 
young or old vines, being an interference with, and an 
artificial regulation of, nature, requires more of his 
skill, judgment, and neatness, than any other. Its ob- 
ject is two-fold: 

1st. To secure each summer a proper amount of ma- 
ture bearing-wood for the next and subsequent years, 
and by thus concentrating upon particular parts of the 
vine all its fructifying powers, preserve it in a healthy, 
vigorous condition. 

2d. To improve the quality of the fruit, whether 
intended for the table or for the making of wine. 

The instruction upon this subject would best be 
given with the grapevine before us. We will en- 
deavor to supply this by cuts, and if the reader will 
only, with this book in hand, himself learn practically 
how to trim his grapevine, we have strong assurance 
that, in a very few seasons, he will be a successful 
trimmer. 

An opinion is prevalent, which I must notice very 
briefly. It is that grapevines should not be trimmed 
at all. This opinion springs from that superficial 
notion, that the experience of European vine-dressers 
is of little consequence here, and that the treatment of 



56 THE vine-dresser's manual. 

American vines on American soil should be entirely 
different. I can only say, that wild grapes may 
be seen in our woods, and in Asia even at this day, and 
by comparing with them the cultivated grape, this 
error will readily be discarded. Perseverance through 
centuries has improved the grape to what it is. The 
experience of European vine-dressers is that of their 
predecessors, the Asiatics, as may be learned even out 
of the Bible, modified, to be sure, but modified with 
reason and judgment, as we should again modify. The 
writer of this has seen hundreds of acres of vineyards 
in this country, and he would unhesitatingly say, that 
the best vineyards, — not for a season or two, but for 
ten (and no doubt fifty) years, — are those which are in 
the hands of such vine-dressers as follow carefully, and 
systematically, the most approved European modes of 
trimming. I do not mean, thereby, such as follow 
blindly and mechanically, but such as, having studied 
and examined European practice, have adapted it to 
their own locality and circumstances, being able to un- 
derstand its principles and apply them. 

We will endeavor to make the matter as plain as 
possible, both in this chapter as in those that follow 
upon this subject. The reader will remember, that if 
the grapevine has been properly taken care of and 
trimmed, it will in the spring of the fourth year pre- 
sent the following appearance : 



TKIMMING YOUNG BEARING VINES. 



57 



Eacli "spur" intended for a "thigh" should be not 
less than six nor more than ten inches long, leaving at 
least two and not more than three joints and buds upon 
it. The head will be well formed and of good size, and 
care will have been taken to get the thighs to grow 
out of the sides of the head rather than its centre. 

Fig. 15. 




After trimming the foarth year, being ready for bearing. 



From the buds marked 1, 2, 3, on each thigh, will, 
during summer, grow shoots. Those upon 1 and 2 
should be carefully tied up to the stake. The shoots 
3* 



58 



THE VINE-DRESSEK S MANUAL. 



growing out of 8, or wliicli may grow out of the head, 
should, after two leaves have formed upon them, be 
pinched off above and beyond the two leaves. 

Upon all these shoots at the joints, little twigs or lat- 
teral branches, marked a in Fig. 16, grow in the early 
part of summer. 

FiQ 16. 




These must all be removed by hand just above the 
first small leaf where it is marked in the cut. The 
leaves at the junction of the latterals with the branch 
should be carefully preserved, however. 

This tends to ripen the branch into good sound 
bearing wood, for if these laterals were not removed, 
it would weaken the intended bearing wood the next 



TRIMMING YOUNG BEARING VINES. 



.9 



season. The vine will in the fall, after the leaves shall 
have fallen off, if thus trimmed, look thus : 



Fig. it. 




In the fall of the fourth year. 

Here, then, are two brandies upon each spur or thigh 
for bearing wood. One such would really be enough, 
but two are trained, first, to have a spare one in case of 
accident or loss, and for a spur for the season following, 
and second, to leave sufficient wood and leaves upon the 
vine, so as not to restrain its growth too much. It is, 
as already stated, not desirable to have the bearing 
wood too rank, which would surely be the case if the 
vine were trimmed too close during summer. There 



60 



THE vine-dresser's MANUAL. 



are, also, both upon the head and the thighs, small 
shoots with one bud each, which are left there to the 
length above pointed out, so as to keep the joint alive 
for future use, and to prevent its closing by becoming 
gnarled over. 

The next point is how to trim such a vine during 
the winter or spring following. The rule is to cut the 



Fig. 18. 




In the Spring of the fifth year after trimming. 

thriftiest, and if possible the upper bl'anch a, down to 
from five to eight buds or joints for the bows, and if the 
lower branch remain, to trim it down, leaving one bud 
or joint for spurs, and to cut all the remaining branches 



HOW TO BEND THE BOWS. 61 

away, close to the joint of tlie tliigh, not injuring, how- 
ever, the bud, which may be upon the thigh itself or 
upon the head. The trimmed vine will resemble 
Fig. 18. 

The vine may now be said to have reached the dig- 
nity of an adult, being ready for the duties of its use- 
ful life. 

Its pruning and treatment during the following sum- 
mer and winter, will be described in another chapter. 



HOW TO BEND THE BOWS. 

Before entering more fully into detail about trim- 
ming, it maybe well to describe the manner of making 
bows. 

While the hoeing and ploughing may be entrusted 
to any laborer having a general idea of work, so he be 
one not apt to shirk work, or slur it over, it is differ- 
ent with bow-making. This requires much practice 
and skill, or else much damage will be done, by break- 
ing the branches. 

The bows should be formed before the buds swell, or 
else many of them will be stripped off by even a 
careful workman — the great point being to have them 
as round as possible, and all breaks and sharp bends 
should be carefully avoided. Morning is the best time, 



62 



THE VINE-DRESSER'S MANUAL. 



because tlie vines then bend easy. In the afternoon 
they are dryer, and hence more apt to break. Taking 
the end of the vine in one hand and the part immedi- 
ately following the " thigh," in the other, and while 
passing the vine round with the one hand, pressing it 

Fig. 19. 




Tying the Vines to the Stakes. 



into form by following it out from joint to joint with 
the thumb of the other hand, and then tying the end 
with a willow, is the usual mode. 

The object of bending the vine into a bow, is to 
equalize the sap to all the buds, as otherwise the sap 



HOW TO BEND THE BOWS. 63 

would flow too much to the top. Half bows, in half 
circles, are also frequently adopted, and answer a good 
purpose. 

In connection herewith, I would recommend to every 
person owning land, especially where it is intended to 
have a vineyard, to plant out a wil!ow patch. They 
need little or no cultivation. Simply pushing twigs 
about two feet long, fifteen inches into the ground, and 
with only two or three inches sticking out of the 
ground, similar to grapevines, about five feet apart, 
(the wetter the ground the better,) is all that is re- 
quired for starting them. After they have grown, 
they should be trimmed back pretty close to the stump, 
annually ; and fifty willow bushes will yield enough 
for all the purposes of an acre of yineyard, and leave 
some for basket-making and other purposes about a 
farm. 

The yellow basket willow is the best, though it is 
well to have a few bushes of the long black willow, as 
they are the best for sale. Slips may now be had for 
little or nothing, in the neighborhood of Cincinnati ; 
and let me add, that willow-planting pays well, as 
basket-makers are getting numerous, and pay a good 
price. 

As soon as the stakes are driven in, the bows must 
be tied to them ; but not helter skelter as some do. The 
more careful the bows and branches are fastened, the 
8* 



64 THE vine-dresser's manual. 

easier is the subsequent labor of summer trimming, 
which, will be more fully explained in another chapter. 
It generally happens, that the vintners are rather late 
in getting the vine to the stake, and in performing 
this, the last labor of spring. This done, the vintner 
feels much lighter, <is the buds are by that time more 
or less forward. The person entrusted with this labor 
should therefore be more than usually careful, or else 
he will break off the main buds and do irreparable injury. 
Good, strong willow twigs should be used for this 
work. But mark this : — do not tie the vine so tight 
as to stop the flow of the sap and to check the after- 
growth of the thigh and bearing branch. I have 
known vines to be sadly girdled by too tight t3ring. 
Do not tie the end of the bow too tight to the thigh, as 
otherwise the sap may be completely stopped and the 
bow deprived of proper nourishment. I need not add, 
that too loose tying is also to be avoided. 



ON TRIMMING GENERALLY. 



This important labor, whether for young or old vines, 
should be done early — if possible before the first of 
March — at any rate before. the sap begins to flow ; be- 
cause through late trimmings much sap is lost, and in 



ON TRIMMING GENERALLY. 65 

consequence thereof the vine is apt to become sickly, 
and to decay even. It wonld be well if our vintners 
would use all the pleasant days through the winter 
for this purpose ; but trimming too early is not to be 
recommended. We have, in the United States, very 
warm days during autumn, in which the sap is apt to 
rise in the vines, enough to swell some of the best buds. 
Such buds, if the vines were trimmed in the fall, would 
be sure to be frosted during winter. The outermost 
buds are also liable to dry out ; and hence, I would 
designate February as the best time for trimming 
grapevines. 

Before trimming, it is proper to remove the earth 
from around the head, so as to expose for three or four 
inches the "stem." This is necessary, so that the 
" trimmer " may, by examining the thickness of the 
" stem," have a safe guide as to the quantity of bearing- 
wood to be left to the vine. This the German vintners 
call "loading the vine heavy or light," ^'•vieloder wenig 
aufladeny The " surface roots " growing annually out of 
the head, are now cut away, so as to leave the head 
nice and clean of weeds, sprouts and roots. But I 
must here remark, that I doubt the propriety of 
going down to the third joint on the "stem," below the 
"head," and there cutting off the "roots." Many 
vintners do this, for the purpose of furthering tho 
growth of the " foot-roots." I incline to the opinion 



6Q 

that the practice was adopted, because it accidentally 
proved successfal from some local cause ; and I can 
well imagine peculiar circumstances under whicli the 
practice may be right ; but, as a general rule, I would 
warn against it. I have taken up many grapevines, 
from five to ten years old, and I can say, from practical 
experience, that those vines were thriftiest upon whose 
"stem" not only the "foot-roots," but also the "side- 
roots," were in good condition ; and this is almost cer- 
tain to be the case if the ground has been spaded up 
and turned over deep enough. 

Ill " trimming " grapevines, due regard must be 
had to the species of the grapevine — the soil — the 
exposure — the age — the strength — the fertility of the 
soil — and last, though not least, the j)0ssible injuries 
likely to happen to a vine, from storms or accidental 
mistakes of the vintner himself In this labor Frank- 
lin's motto should be ever present: " What is fit to be 
done at all, is fit to be well done." Great care and nice 
judgment are requisite, and no bungler has any business 
in a vineyard. 

The object of trimming is to remove all superfluous 
wood, and thereby strengthen the vine, so as to render 
it long-lived, and capable of bearing and ripening the 
proper quantity of grapes. 

Vines which have a tendency to generate much wood, 
as all American vines have, should be " loaded" heavy; 



ON TRIMMING GENERALLY. 



67 



that is, more 'bearing wood sliould be left. The better, 
or rather heavier the soil, the greater the load the vines 
will bear. In light, warm soils, vines should be load- 
ed very lightly. Young vines, up to the sixth year, 



Fig. 20. 




should be trimmed close, it being true of grapevines, 
as of our youth, "that early curbing is a guaranty of 
a healthy, mature age." Old vines should be dealt 
with very gently. Then they may give little, but good, 



68 THE vine-dresser's manual. 

wholesome wine. Frosted vines, or sucli as have been 
injured by hail, or other accidents, must be trimmed 
back, so as to provide for " new growth " in every in- 
jured part. 

The preceding cut, Fig. 20, represents a grapevine as 
it is late in the fall, when a good vintner has attended 
to it during the preceding summer. 

The reader will see, that the vine has two vineyard 
stakes, say about two feet apart, and that the vine has 
two "Thighs," which is as much as any vine should 
be asked to keep up. At the end of the " Thighs " 
are the " Bows," which were the " chief bearing wood " 
of the season previous. At the first joint above the 
" Thigh," Bearing Wood No. 1 is perceived. This 
was left, by the good vintner, to be trimmed down to 
six or eight joints, or buds, and to form from it the 
Bow, or Chief Bearing Wood, for the ensuing summer. 
The reader will also see Bearing Wood No. 2, which 
grew out a " Spur," left upon each thigh the spring 
previous. 

This Bearing Wood, No. 2, is trimmed down to two 
joints, and will form the chief spur for this season. 
Out of this spur it is intended to train the Bearing 
Wood No. 1, for the succeeding year, say in 1855 for 
1856, of which more hereafter. The reader will also 
perceive a shoot marked " Wood for Spur," which 
should be trimmed down to one joint, or bud, so as to 



ON TRIMMING GENERALLY. 69 

have an extra spur ready if accidentally it should be 
needed, for renovating the vine with new Bearing 
Wood. The reader will also perceive two " Ground 
Shoots." One of these must be cut away, while one 

Fich 21. 




of them had better be trimmed down to three or four 
joints, so as to have it ready, in case either one of the 
thighs should be broken off. Such a ground shoot 



70 

should also be trained, wherever sound judgment prog- 
nosticates the probable future unfitness of existing 
thighs. 

The chief spurs will each bear a few grapes, often 
the best. 

We will now give a cut as the vine should look if 
trimmed right, believing that this will furnish nearly 
as correct information as if the instruction were given 
before the vine itself. 

Fig. 21 represents a grapevine, over six years old, 
having a stem two inches or more thick, and healthy 
throughout ; and bearing this in mind, one may add 
to, or lighten the " ZoacZ," as good sense will dictate. 
Few vintners succeed in having all their vines in just 
such perfection. The vines will vary more or less ; 
but the cut will give the general idea. 

K the reader will now compare the trimmed vine 
with the previous cut, he will easily see what must be 
cut away : namely, the old bow, and all other super- 
fluous wood. I need not add, that every vine bears 
small shoots, not marked down on the first cut; be- 
cause, to put them there would have perplexed the 
reader. All such must be trimmed away. 

Should the grapevine to be trimmed be a neglected 
one, and it is intended to start it right anew, then the 
above cut will, with the explanations, give a general 
idea how to bring this about. 



HOW TO CULTIVATE THE SOIL. 71 

Never put a " Spur " above the " Bearing Wood," 
or " Bow," or, as the European vintners have it, " Never 
put the apprentice above the master," a saying in which 
lies the whole idea of so trimming as to have the proper 
number of apprentices ready below, to become subse- 
quent masters. The thighs should never be shorter 
than eight or ten inches, nor longer than four feet ; nor 
should the bows have more than ten to twelve buds, 
nor the spurs more than two or three buds. No vine 
should have more than three thighs — two is enough ; 
nor any one thigh more than one bow, and two spurs, 
(one will generally be enough.) Should it be intended 
to get ''Layers/' it is best to train ground shoots for 
the purpose. 



HOW TO CULTIVATE THE SOIL OF A VINEYAKD. 

Before any cultivation of the ground, the vineyard 
should be cleared of all offals from the previous trim- 
ming. These offals should be packed down in those 
spots in the vineyard which have a tendency to wash. 
They may be used for these purposes in other locali- 
ties. In Germany, they are gathered up for firewood, 
as was the old custom in Judea. I have found them 
most excellent in smoking hams and meat generally, 
and fancied they gave to meat a better flavor. 



72 • THE vine-dresser's manual. 

The soil of a vineyard should never be cultivated 
except in dry, warm weather. The drier and warmer, 
the better. This should especially be the rule in the 
spring, as ground broken up wet subjects the plants 
near to injury from even the lightest foot-prints. The 
rule for breaking ground, in the spring, is simply 
this: Cultivate as soon as the ground is dry, and 
warm weather sets in ; and don't cultivate, no matter 
how late you have to wait, until fair weather does set 
in, and the ground is dry. Don't be in too great a 
hurry, but improve every fair opportunity. If you 
delay too long, the buds will swell, and then they are 
very apt to fall ojff on even slight shaking. 

Whether hoes, ploughs, or cultivators are proper 
tools, must be determined by circumstances; and they 
will guide every person having any idea of the cultiva- 
tion of soil generally. The great point is thorough- 
ness — that is, in turning over every part of the soil, 
and the most careful attention towards the destruction 
of all weeds, particularly around the head of the Vine. 
In the spring, the ground should be broken up at least 
six inches deep, and the rougher the clods are left the 
better, so that they are fully turned. Eain and warmth 
will thus penetrate deeper ; the ground will wash less, 
and the clods will be ready to fall entirely to pieces 
when the second cultivation takes place. The two- 
pronged hoe, {Jcarsch, in German,) is, in my opinion, the 



VINES OK TRELLISES. 73 

best instrument for this purpose. A good sTiovel- 
plough may work for the second, and a cultivator for 
the third operation. The first should take place before 
the middle of May, or latest, the first of June ; the 
second, as soon after the vines are through blossoming, 
and the third early in the fall, (but not in the dog-days 
says an old vintner at my elbow,) a traditionary rule, for 
which it may be hard to give a scientific reason, but 
which I found true to my sorrow, in two instances in 
which I acted counter to the rule. In each case my 
vineyard lost more or less of its foliage, and all of its 
rich, green tint. 

There are, as yet, no old vineyards in the United 
States ; but it may be well to mention that old vine- 
yards must be cultivated with greater care than young 
ones ; and their roots, even when near the surface, should 
not be needlessly torn up and injured. 

The same care should also be had in the fall cultiva- 
tion, so as to disturb as little as possible the tender sur- 
face-roots, which grow annually out of the head.- 



VINES ON TRELLISES. 



In the preceding pages, the mode described is appli- 
cable particularly for vineyards intended for the 
manufacture of wine. If the object should be, how- 



74 

ever, to raise grapes merely for table use — either for 
one's family or for market — a different mode, in some 
respects, may well be pursued, and instead of training 
the vines upon stakes, trellise work may be adopted. 

I may say that. the mode of staking out, indicated as 
the Palatinate method. Fig. 14, may form the general 
basis for trellises. The vines, instead of being four feet 
apart, should then be from eight to twelve, and the 
stakes or posts at least eight feet long above ground. 

For trellis planting, I would specially recommend, 
never to plant close to the walls of houses or fences, 
since such close planting injures the building, and be- 
sides, subjects vines to all kinds of insects which are 
apt to prey upon them. It impedes, also, the proper 
cultivation at all seasons of the year. The distance 
from houses and walls should be at least four feet, and 
the trellises formed over shaded walks, which may be 
made in almost endless variety. Such trellises should 
be on the south side of houses, &c., and every chance 
afforded for air and sun to operate upon every part of 
the vine. The early training of the vines is similar to 
the mode already described, except that they should 
be planted not less than eight feet apart. Less care need 
betaken for the formation of the "head," near the 
ground, and less attention need be paid to the boughs, 
as well as to the renovation of the thighs. Some form 
the head three to five feet from the ground, and then 



VINES ON TRELLISES. 75 

train two horizontal thighs out of it, upon which 
thej trim in winter, four to eight spurs. Others, 
again, trim for full bows — others for half bows, 
with more or less spurs in all cases. The general 
idea is, that being less restrained as to room, par- 
ticularly along walks and around houses, less strict 
rules are followed as to trimming, it being varied ac- 
cording to circumstances. Summer trimming is almost 
invariably entirely dispensed with, unless, indeed, a 
regular vineyard is planted out upon this principle. 
Reading the preceding pages will indicate the general 
rules. Instead of thighs, branches, &;c., the vine will 
then be divided into main and side stems, and 
branches with half bows and often even without smj 
bows, and relying for bearing wood only upon spurs. 
Where a vine is intended to be drawn up as high as 
the roof of a two-storied house, the vine had better be 
trained upon the two- story principle also, by forming, 
if I may say so, a two-storied main stem. 

To train a vine some twelve to fifteen feet straight 
up, engenders its rapid growth, and imparts to it a 
heavy, rich foliage, but such vines are seldom good 
bearers. 

It is in accordance with long experience — one that 
has never failed — that bending the bearing wood pro- 
motes its bearing qualities, and equally useful are all 
checks to the too rapid upward flow of the sap. 



76 

Should sucli trellised vines be planted in too fat 
garden or hot-bed ground, they would grow very 
thriftily in their earlier years ; and if this rapid growth 
tends to loading them early with too much bearing 
wood, such vines will soon become sickly, and almost 
invariably their fruit becomes distasteful, and their 
foliage assumes a disagreeable color. It is far better 
to have less rich soil. 

There is a tendency in the United States towards 
trellis planting for all grapevines. For table grapes 
this is all right, but we need never expect to make 
good wine from them. Trellised vines bear a larger 
crop, and the grapes are more palatable to the taste ; 
but the wine made from them is insipid. I cannot, 
perhaps, furnish a better illustration of what I mean, 
than by reminding the reader of cider made out of na- 
tural fruit, and compared with that made out of fine 
table apples — ^the latter being far inferior. 

In Europe, they, therefore, plant upon trelHses near 
large cities certain peculiar varieties of special table 
grapes, which bear large and early fruit. The " Chas- 
selas," in French, or the German " Grutedel," (good and 
noble,) are preferred for this purpose. I imported of 
them both slips and roots twice, but lost them each 
time in the second or third winter. The Burgundy, 
Muscatel, and Malvasier grape are also excellent table 
grapes for trellises. In this country the Isabella ripens 



SUMMER TRIMMING. 77 

very unequally in vineyards when trained on stakes. 
It does better on trellises. The Catawba will also 
answer when trained on trellises for table fruit. 



SUMMER TRIMMING. 

This labor is in German called Zwicken, which, 
being literally translated, means pinching with the 
forefinger and thumb. It is also sometimes called 
Ausbrechen (breaking off), because the main object of 
it iS; to break off or remove all unnecessary branches, 
so that the retained useful branches may grow more 
thriftily, and that the grapes may thereby become more 
perfect and ripe, by receiving freely the effects of sun 
and air. Care must be taken that the growing grape 
be not without its due protection from leaves, as will 
presently be explained. 

This labor requires much practical skill, judgment, 
and experience. Errors in winter trimming, or acci- 
dental losses, may now be remedied by an expert sum- 
mer trimmer, by promoting, at the proper places, those 
shoots which the vine stands in need of. Errors in 
su.mmer trimming are harder to remedy, for obvious 
reasons. Whoever, therefore, attempts trimming in 
summer should fully understand winter trimming, for 



78 



THE VINE-DEESSEk's MANUAL. 



the two operations are intimately connected. In sum- 
mer trimming, the vine-dresser must have regard for 
the trim which is to follow the succeeding winter. 

One important point in this matter is to know where^ 
that is, at what part of the vine, to leave the shoots 

Fio. 22. 




untrimmed, and which shoots to trim awa}^. Some 
retain simply the thriftiest branches, regardless of the 
place they grow upon, which is a great error. If the 
bows are properly fastened to the stakes, the shoots 



SUMMER TRIMMING. 79 

not to be trimmed will stand immediately upon or near 
tlie stake. See Fig. 22. 

The shoots, of which one or two are intended to be 
retained for bearing wood and other purposes, for the 
seasons following, being marked 1, 2, and 3, a shoot 
will also generally be retained upon each spur, and is 
marked a. Great care must be had not to retain for 
these purposes the shoots growing out of the buds 
marked B ; being so near those marked ISTo. 1 and 2, 
they are apt to be mistaken for tliem. How many 
shoots to retain cannot be stated definitely — that de- 
pends upon the relative strength, age, and vigor of 
each vine. For a vigorous vine three shoots may Veil 
be left — that is, two upon each of the bows of those 
marked 1, 2, and 3, and one upon each spur as marked 
a ; and also trim one, whenever this can be done, out 
of the "Head" marked C, the object of the latter being 
to be prepared for renovating the " thighs." For an 
old, decrepit, or sickly vine, two or three new shoots 
would be enough. A good vine-dresser knows that 
there must be no attempt to have the foliage dispropor- 
tionate to the stem and roots below the ground. 
. AVhich shoots to trim may be gathered from the pre- 
ceding remarks. They are marked 5 and upwards. 
Should there be grapes upon any of them, then they 
should be so pinched off as to leave one leaf at least, if 
not two, beyond the outer grape. In fact, no shoot 



80 THE vine-dresser's manual. 

should be entirely broken off — one or two leaves should 
always be retained. 

To keep the vine in good bearing order, it is abso- 
lutely necessary so to trim or dress the vine in summer 
as to enable the winter trimmer to renovate constantly, 
and to replace entirely the thighs every four to six 
years. No "thigh" should be older than five years. 
Then it should be replaced by an entirely new one. 
Hence the lowest shoots, marked 1, 2, and 3, are re- 
tained npon the bows, and hence, too, one shoot is re- 
tained upon each of the spurs, marked a — ^these being 
intended for gradual renovation, while the ground 
shoots, marked C, are intended for entirely new 
"thighs," being dressed up and trained for that pur- 
pose, as directed for young vines. I need hardly re- 
peat here, what I have said already, that both trimming 
too high or too low are both extremes to be avoided. 

More shoots are dressed up and retained than are 
needed for the succeeding winter trimming, and that is 
done both for the purpose of having a surplus in case 
of accident, and also to give the trimmer a choice, so 
that in examining the stem and roots, he may, when his 
vine is unobstructed by foliage, judge more clearly 
which are the most desirable branches for each respec- 
tive vine. 

When this labor is to be performed cannot be indi- 
cated by general rule. As soon as the shoots are 



SUMMER TRIMMING. 



81 



twelve or fourteen inches long, it is time to trim tliem, 
and dress and fasten tliem up. If too long delayed, a 
heavy storm might break off a good many of them, 
and thus prove a sad summer trimmer. Most gene- 
rally, the proper time is in the latter part of May, or 
early in June. 



Fio. 24. 




A vine well trimmed- 



A vine badly trimmed. 



Let me repeat here the well-known fact, that the 
foliage is the gTeat regulator of all vegetation in sum- 
mer. A good vine-dresser knows, by the very color 
of the leaf, the amount of foliage required by the vine. 
Some difference should also be made between dry and 
rainy seasons. Every grape should have some leaf 



82 

over it, to give it shade, and to aid it during the ripen- 
ing process. 

By comparing Figs. 23 and 24, the reader will at 
once perceive that in the latter, the vine is trimmed so 
that when the bow is unfastened, the shoot which is to 
form the next year's bow would be much too high up 
on the stake. 



GATHERING THE GRAPES. 

Cheerfully the vintner undertakes this, the pleas- 
antest of all his labors. Kemuneration for many a toil- 
some hour now smiles at him from out his favorite 
vines. So sweet is this feeling, that fcAV vintners can 
wait for the proper time. Grapes, if intended for wine, 
should be gathered as late as is possible, and it matters 
not if they should even get overripe. 

Many vintners are of the opinion that the grape, 
once ripe — which is the case as soon as the stems of the 
grape bunches turn brown — it is useless to permit the 
grapes to encumber the vines any longer, as its quality 
will not be thereafter much improved. But experience 
demonstrates that while the quantity is slightly dimin- 
ished, the quality is much improved. In this country, 
where there are never more than two, and generally 
but one species of grape, while in Europe from six to 



GATHERING THE GRAPES. 83 

twenty species are often found in the same vineyard, 
one reason for premature gathering is obviated. The 
grapes generally ripen all about the same time. Should, 
•however— as will happen— one species of grape ripens 
before the other, it is best to gather the ripe fruit, and 
then gather the rest subsequently when ripe. 

There is one great objection among our vintners to 
patient waiting, which must be mentioned. It lies m 
the insecurity of their fruit against poachers. Fruit is 
for some reason regarded as common property, and the 
same person who would not take beans, cucumbers, 
corn, or carrots, will think any one a " stingy bugge?-''' 
who does not look with gratification at any person 
taking his grapes without leave. The vintners know 
the prevalence of this freebooting sentiment as to the 
fruit which has cost them so much labor and money. 
They will watch it for a fortnight, night and day, but 
it is too much to expect them to lose their night's rest 
much longer, merely to improve the quality of their 
wine a degree or two. The conclusion is too tempting 
to be long resisted, to put their grapes " where neither 
moth entereth, nor rust corrupteth, nor thieves break 
through and steal." 

This is a serious impediment to an improvement in 
the quality of our wines, but I fear it will exist for 
some time, at least until fruit, especially grapes, become 
more generally cultivated, and then a " fellow feeling" 



84: THE vine-dresser's manual. 

will overcome the loose morality about fruit poaching. 
Laws wliich follow up this growing tendency, would 
certainly be useful. The following general rules are 
recommended in gathering grapes : 

1. Gather only in fair weather, and after the dew is 
off the grapes. 

2. Should rain or heavy fogs occur, stop gathering. 
It is always bad to go into vineyards while the ground 
is too wet, and especially in the fall. Aside from the 
injury to the quality of the wine, it can be proved, 
that between gathering in fair or foul weather, with 
and without the dew drops upon the grapes, there is a 
difference of between five to ten degrees in the quality 
of the wine. 

8. Care should be had not to injure the vines, while 
searching for the inside grapes. 

4. Unripe grapes should, as already stated, be lefl 
in the vineyard on the vines, and if there be but few, 
or if the season will not permit their subsequent ripen- 
ing, it is a good practice to mix them with some good 
apples in cider making, but not to put them with the 
good ripe grapes. 

5. Should a few unripe berries be found on a grape- 
bunch they must be picked out and thrown away, — or 
should there be a few really ripe berries upon an im- 
ripe bunch, then the ripe ones are picked out and ga- 
thered, and the unripe bunch itself is left on the vine. 



GATHEKIKG THE GRAPES. 85 

6. Everything, except the goocl^ sound^ ripe berries, 
should be carefully picked out, and particularly- those 
dried up kernels — so frequent in this country — the 
result of the blue rot. 

7. Leaves, which casually drop among the gathered 
grapes should be thrown out. 

It is easy to see from the preceding rules, that ga- 
thering grapes requires care and attention. I think 
buckets and tight barrels are better for the purpose of 
holding the gathered grapes, than baskets. The skins 
of American Grapes are, to be sure, tougher than the 
European, though this is fortunately getting less so 
every year, but very ripe grapes suffer much loss, even 
here, if handled in baskets. 

I would here warn against that voracious eating of 
grapes, while gathering them, which is characteristic 
of raw hands. Our grapes have very large kernels 
and very tough skins, and there is inside also a rather 
indigestible pulp. All these things are different in 
Europe. There the kernels are small, the skin very 
light, and the inside is almost without pulp. Persons 
in this country read of the Grrape Cure in Europe, and 
from this conclude, that grapes are always healthy. 
So they no doubt are, if eaten in small quantities, and 
when perfectly ripe ; but I know of five deaths, within 
my own experience, which from unmistakable signs 
arose from eating too freely of grapes. One of these 



86 THE vine-dresser's manual. 

five was a most hearty and very intelligent young 
German, who laughed at all warnings, and would insist 
that grapes were surely healthy at all times of the day, 
and in any amount. 



MANURES. 

Whatever experiments may have been made with 
special manures for vineyards, the best ^5, and will 
continue to be, the compost manure, if got up right. 
It may be composed of various kinds of material, easily 
attainable. 

Common stable manure, street sweepings, turnpike 
dirt, sweepings and slops of houses and chambers, saw- 
dust, shavings, pomace, leavings from tan yards, tailor, 
shoe and turning shops, distilleries, ground out of 
woods, marl, leaves from the vines, and weeds of all 
kinds, woollen rags, especially ; all these, and many 
other things, which will readily suggest themselves, 
should be procured, as opportunity offers, in as great 
a variety as possible, and mixed together in the follow- 
ing manner : A hole is dug, at least four feet deep 
and six feet wide, as near the vineyard as possible, and 
into it are these materials thrown promiscuously, and 
as they are thrown in, covered and mixed half and half 



MANUEES. 37 

with ground. It is most excellent to pour over it fre- 
quently the liquids of horse and cow stables. Let it 
rot for a year, and then remove it into the vineyard, 
and the effects of such compost manure are far supe- 
rior to any other. ^ 

Woollen rags are excellent, applied alone. They 
rot soon, when placed around the stem of the vine and 
covered with ground. 

Horn shavings and filings are also very good, so are 
hair and all kinds of leather. I prefer, however, to 
throw every one of these last-named materials into the 
compost heaps, mixing and rotting them with the 
rest. 

No vineyard should be manured oftener than once 
in two years ; and where the ground is rich, it should 
be done only every three or four years. During the 
first three or even four years, no manure need be 
applied, except preparatory to the first bearing 
year, and then sparingly immediately around the 
vines. 

The quantity is not so easy to determine, but fifteen 
to twenty good two-horse loads of compost manure 
per acre would not be too much. 

Woollen rags, horn-shavings, hair, and such special 
strong manures, had better be applied in .the fall. 
Compost manure, if well rotted, may be applied during 
fall or spring. I have ever disapproved manuring 



88 

during summer, as it disturbs the growtli, and is likely 
to impart a peculiar taste to the wine. 

I have always found it best to spread the compost 
manure all over the vineyard, well covering it, how- 
ever, ^th ground. Special manure I have applied 
more immediately around the vines, and found it a 
good practice. 

During the alternate years in which manure is not 
applied, ground should be hauled to each vine, taking 
the ground from the woods. This keeps the vine itself, 
and especially its head, well supplied with ground, and 
prevents its being exposed too far above the surface. 



DISEASES TO WHICH GRAPEVINES ARE SUBJECT. 

I COULD not, consistently, encumber this book with 
a chapter on " Grape sicknesses," because I am satis- 
fied that I could only give a page or so of specula- 
tions, which may prove right, but of which I have not 
had a fair experience. I have preferred to state only 
methods known to me to be practical and correct. If 
they are well followed, I do not think that any serious 
sickness need be ever apprehended. The grape sick- 
nesses in America may with propriety form a part of 
such a book as the one now presented, when we shall 



WINE MAKING. 



have had a further experience of ten or fifteen years, 
and after we shall have planted really good vineyards. 
For the same reason I dispense with several other pro- 
lific subjects, which usually form a part of such books. 



WmE MAKING. 

MASHING THE GRAPES. 

Almost every vine- dresser in this country has his 
own mode of mashing grapes, as has almost every 
neighborhood in Europe. 

I will endeavor to describe some of the more simple 
methods, and they may serve the reader as an indica- 
tion of what he may require, each case being modified 
by the kind and particularly the quantity of grapes 
to be mashed. 

For a few bushels of grapes I know of no more sim- 
ple and efficacious method than to prepare a wooden 
stamper three feet and a half long, of the form repre- 
sented in Fig. 25, being at the larger end si± inches in 
diameter and having the bottom a little scooped out 
or concave. Bore holes entirely through the large end 
with a quarter-inch auger in every direction, and in- 



90 



THE vine-dresser's MANUAL. 



sert round oak or hickory pins, so as to have them 
project at each end three-eighths of an inch. 

Into a clean sweet cask of the capacity of about forty 
gallons, put about two bushels of grapes, and then pass 
the stampei up and down among them until they are 
completely mashed. The small wooden pins project- 
ing as they do, are a great aid in the mashing process. 



Fig. 25. 




Fig. 26. 




As soon as completely mashed, empty the mass into 
a box upon the press. 

Another mode very common in Europe, is treading 
the grapes with the feet. The grapes are placed in a 
small tub or cask, the bottom of which is punctured 



WINE MAKING. 91 

with small auger holes. This tub is placed upon two 
sticks put across a larger cask, and the operator treads 
the grapes with his feet. 

A machine of very simple construction having two 
rollers, between which the grapes are passed, may bo 
constructed for a few dollars, and will answer a good 
purpose. Fig. 26 will serve for an illustration. 

Whenever larger quantities are to be mashed, I 
would advise the use of the common apple-mashers with 
horse power. I prefer these as cheapest, very expedi- 
tious and effective, and in all localities easily obtained. 

After the pomace has been once slightly pressed, 
I have always subjected it to a second mashing, and 
again pressing it. The rollers or mashers should not 
be set too close, as the stems and kernels should not be 
crushed. 

In Europe, about twenty years ago, the practice of 
separating the "berries" from the "combs" before 
pressing, was much in vogue. 

The comb containing tannin and apple acids, it was 
deemed desirable to keep these ingredients out of the 
wine. This was performed by rasps of various con- 
struction, one of which is represented in Fig. 27, 
consisting of two shallow boxes or trays ; the bottoms 
made of crossed slats, laid as represented in cut a, Fig. 
27, and not laid upon the flat sides of the square. The 
upper rasp must be small enough to admit of its being 



b 



92 



THE vine-dresser's MANUAL. 



rubbed backward and forward within and upon tbe 
lower one, having the grapes between them. 




''^'^^'^^'^^U 



IK 




1 


m 


1 


n 


m 


1 


l^o 




1 


1^ 












l^w 




l^ 




iiii(ijmi(D[^[]iiif 




1 


SSiSSIw 


^SS 


^ ^S ^^^ SS^^^fl^^K 


i(^mS 






ill 






1 




HlWWIM 






EH (1 (LJ) (|rj 


rOD 


igfi 




HMlnnfi 


aaii-! 


^ 




^ 


M'.^ 


SflS 




Hi 




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HB 


Wjfl^^ 




)m 1 


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bmSS 


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IKS 




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/ e ' ' ' ^' — -^ 



The interstices should be of the proper size to suffer 
the crushed berries to pass through and retain the comb. 



WIKE MAKING. 93 

The slats may be three-four tlis of an inch or au 
inch in thickness. 

These rasps may be of wood of any size from two 
feet to six feet square ; made somewhat like a Avindow- 
sash with a rim around the margin six inches high. 

They are placed over a tub of the proper size when 
being used. 

This method of mashing grapes will not probably 
prevail to any great extent in the United States. The 
harder skin of our grapes and their peculiar pulp ren- 
der it more laborious, and it is the opinion of many of 
our best vintners that the "tannin" of the stem, both 
improves the flavor of the wine and furnishes some 
preservative qualities. 

Many of the wine manufacturers of Europe allow 
the mashed grapes to ferment in stand casks before 
pressing, and for grapes thus to be fermented the rasp- 
ing process is certainly to be recommended. 

This fermentation will, I think, not be adopted gen- 
erally in this country, owing to the warmth of the 
season at the time of vintage. It is a matter upon 
which it is well to experiment, however, and the result 
would be interesting to the public. 

The practice most be recommended is to mash the 
berries upon the stems effectually, and any method 
which accomplishes this, without too much bruising 
the comb or crushing the kernel, may be adopted. The 



94 



THE vine-dresser's MANUAL. 



more expeditiously this is done, and the sooner the 
grapes can be got to the press without unnecessary ex- 
posure to the atmosphere, the better. 



PRESSING. 



After the grapes are mashed, they should be trans- 
ferred as expeditiously as possible to the wine press. 



A 



Pig. 28. 






w J / n/ , 



^ 



D) 




As to the kind of press and other appurtenances of 
the vineyard, the vintner must be governed by the 
quantity of grapes, the extent of his present and pro- 



FKESSING. 95 

spective vineyards, and tlie dimensions of his purse. 
But this volume being intended especially for begin- 
ners and persons having limited vineyards, our descrip- 
tion of a wine-press will be of the simplest kind, adapt- 
ed to the masses of our people, few of whom have large 
vineyards. 

Fig. 28 represents a wine-press of very simple 
construction, which may be made larger than the 
dimensions given below when the quantity of grapes 
demands it. 

The upright posts may even be inserted into the 
ground a distance of four feet instead of into the pieces 
of timber as represented. They are 10 by 12 inches 
and 10 feet in height. The top cross piece is 8 by 10 
inches and 8 feet long, the ends secured to the upright 
posts by mortise and tenon. The two lower cross 
pieces are notched into the posts about two feet from 
the bottom, and are secured by a pin or bolt. Upon 
these lower cross pieces is placed the floor of the press, 
which is some four feet square, and is composed either 
of a solid piece of wood or of several pieces jointed 
together, so formed as to make a bed of two and a 
half inches thick with a rim all around of six inches 
in height. The floor should descend in every direc- 
tion towards the hole for the spout. The pieces must 
be driven together by wedges inserted between the 
floor and the posts. 



I 



96 



THE VINE-DRESSER S MANUAL. 



Upon this "press-floor" is placed the frame, Fig. 29, 
made of two-inch oak boards — 3 feet square and 18 to 24 
inches high, fastened together by mortise and tenon, 
yet so as to be easily taken apart and perforated by 
holes one-eighth of an inch diameter, about an inch 
apart, also having notches cut on the lower edge, for 
the passage of the juice. 



Fie. 29. 




Into this frame are poured the mashed grapes. After 
levelling them off, a covering of inch boards is placed 
upon them ; this cover is closely fitted to the frame, and 
can be easily put in and taken out, and upon this a 
cross piece of oak 6 by 6 inches for the screw to press 
upon. The screw may be of wood or iron, and is turn- 
ed by levers inserted in the head. 

The sap which first flows from the press makes the 
best wine, and that which is last expressed is somewhat 



PRESSING. 97 

inferior. In this country the manufacture of wine is 
so much in its infancy, that very few persons attempt 
to preserve the nice distinctions in the quality of wines 
which prevail in Europe, and the wine is generally 
thrown promiscuously into the cask. ^ 

Cleanliness and despatch in mashing and pressing 
cannot be too strongly enjoined. 

The young wine is easily spoiled because it adopts 
acids not only from the atmosphere, but also from any 
implement or utensil which may be sour or unclean. 

The press mashers and casks should therefore be 
scrupulously cleaned before using them, and be kept 
clean during the entire labor. 

Employ none but expert, neat, and cleanly work- 
men. 

Do not let your grapes, either before or after being 
mashed, stand about for days in tubs or barrels. 

Hire hands enough to gather every day enough to 
fill your press, and, if possible, mash and press them 
the same evening, and transfer the juice to the cellar, 
permitting the air to act upon it as little as possible 
during these operations. 

Do not defer procuring your casks to the last mo- 
ment. Have the transfer casks you fill with, and 
also your cellar casks, nicely clean and tight. 

They should be as large as the quantity of wine you 
expect to make will require. The larger the quantity 

.i 



98 THE vine-dressek's manual, 

fermenting in one body, the steadier is the fei-inenta- 
tion and the better the wine. 

Large casks are the pride of a good vintner, because 
they are a guarantee that his wine will have a chance 
to ferment well. 

In Europe, casks of 10,000 gallons are frequent, 
and less than 500 gallons arc seldom used ; and such 
vintners as have smaller quantities either sell their 
wine from the press, or, clubbing together, get their 
wine into large casks. 

A wine house with a cellar underneath, is desirable 
in every vineyard of a size suf&cient to justify the ex- 
pense. The construction is simple, and requires no 
explanation in this volume. 



TREATMENT OF THE WINE. 

The young wine fresh from the Press is filled into 
the casks in the cellar. These casks should be placed 
upon scantling or scaffolding, and not upon the ground 
in the cellar. 

They should be filled only three-fourths full. 

The wine will soon commence fermentation, gen- 
erally within the next twenty-four hours. The mass 
bubbles, as cider does, during fermentation, and if the 



TREATMEN'T OF THE WINE. 



99 



casks were entirely filled, miicli of it would run over. 
It rejects carbonic acid, and also many of the finer 
aromatic essences escape. 

Many devices have been tried to retain these latter. 
The process adopted in the making of Champagne is 
for the purpose of securing this great desideratum, and 
thus the greater part of the carbonic acid and these 
finer essences are retained. 



Fro. 30. 




The manufacture of Champagne^ however, requires 
an amount of outlay for casks, cellars of extraordinary 
depth, bottles, ka., which places it beyond the reach of 
the ordinary vintner of small means ; and as this will 
also place it beyond the scope of this work, we must 
refer the reader to those works which treat upon the 
subject, especially if they would pursue their investi- 
gations farther in this direction. 

The securing the finer essences of the wine, may be 



100 

attained sufficiently for our purpose by a very simple 
contrivance, shown in Fig. 80. 

A tube of block tin is inserted into the bung of tlie 
cask an inch, or more, with, the shorter arm immersed 
in a crock of water. As soon as the fermentation shall 
have fairly commenced, the carbonic acid will escape 
through the water. 

As the fermentation and its consequent pressure 
subsides, much of the carbonic acid, and many of the 
aromas, so essential to fine-flavored wine, are retained. 

A great advantage is also gained thereby in rendering 
it less necessary to keep watch over the fermentation, 
and to close the casks as soon as the fermentation shall 
have ceased; the external atmosphere being at all 
times excluded, the oxygen of the air cannot penetrate 
to the fermenting mass. 

When this plan is not adopted, be careful not to 
fasten the bung during fermentation. 

This would cause the cask to burst. 

As soon as the fermentation is over, drive in the 
bung tightly. 

After the more violent fermentation is passed, fill 
the casks brimfull, and for four weeks refill at least 
once a week, and afterwards, till late in the spring, re- 
fill once a month. 

In Europe, where wine is a chief element in the 
food of families, one cask is kept for daily nse, and 



TREATMKXT OF THE WIXE. 101 

from this the other casks are replenished. In any cask 
that cannot be kept fall, the vacant space should be 
hunifid out with brimstone, as hereafter described, at 
least once a month. The object of this being to keep 
it perfectly sweet. 

Empty wine casks should be thus " burnt out" once 
each quarter of a year, and especially just before fill- 
ing or immediately after emptying them. Before 
burning, the casks should be thoroughly washed out 
with hot and cold water. The brimstone will not 
burn unless the casks are nearly clean. 

One can also detect by this means whether the casks 
are perfectly tight, as the smoke will b^ sure to escape 
through any crevices, if such exist. 

The brimstone is prepared as follows ; 

Put common brimstone in a pot over a slow fire. 
Be careful not to melt too rapidly, as this may cause it 
to ignite. When melted, draw through it strips oc 
stout paper, an inch wide and a foot long, and hold 
them in the air a few minutes till the brimstone 
hardens. 

To burn out a cask, take out the bung, and after 
setting fire to one of these strips, quickly insert it into 
the cask, and drive the bung home upon it, so as to 
hold, it suspended while it burns. 

Some mne-makers, after burning with buimstone, 
again burn the cask out with a small sponge dipped in 



102 THE VIXE-DIll'LSSEIi's MANUAL. 

the best brand^^, fdstencd to a wire, and inserted into 
the cask as with the brimstone slip. 

The fermented wine is left in the cask upon the lees 
undisturbed until spring, say March or April. Then 
it should be drawn off. 

About the time that the grapevine is in bloom, tlio 
wine undergoes another fermentation in the cellar, 
again forming small lees. 

Wine becomes generally clear a few weeks after it 
is put into the casks in the fall, and some persons then 
draw it off. This gives the wine a milder taste, but 
at the expense of strength, Our wines being naturally 
strong, this may be done here without material injury. 

A vintner should take the' earliest opportunity to 
have a good, welhpaved, deep cellar, dry and well 
walled with stone. It should be not less than eight 
feet deep. In Europe their cellars are seldom less than 
twelve to twenty feet deep, and are almost invariably 
arched over. 

Thus their Avines are preserved from the extreme 
cold of winter and heat of summer. Cellars should be 
kept dark, except while working in them. Vegetables, 
and substances which are apt to create an offensive 
smell, should not be kept in the same cellar with wine. 
And the cellar should always be kept scrupulously clean. 

As soon as the wine is perfectly clear in the spring, 
J would recommend the bottling off for family use (a 



TREATMENT OF THE WINE. 103 

lialf gross or so), and laying the bottles in sand. 
Those who will try this plan will find that after Ijdiig 
thus for some six weeks, their wine will be vastly 
improved. 

In the directions here given for the making of wine, 
I have confined myself to the simple treatment of such 
matters as every vintner must know. A much more 
elaborate work might have been written, but the 
" Yine-Dresser''s ManuaV^ is intended for the general 
cultivator, and not for the extensive wine manufoc- 
tuTcr. 

A good cultivator will find in this all that is neces- 
sary to enable him to make good wine, or better said, 
to suifer the wine to make itself. 

In conclusion, I hope I shall be pardoned for saying 
that natural, unadulterated wine is entirely healthful, 
and may with great advantage form a part of the food 
of our people, and for all classes be made a wliolesome 
addition to the principal meal of the day at least. 

All artificial loines are injurious, and none more so 
than those " unfermented wines," as they are called, 
with which over-scrupulous persons are humbugged. 
All such are unnatural, and contain foreign substance, 
more or less unwholesome. Would that good, sound 
sense were more prevalent on this subject. 

May God bless the vintner's skill and toil I 



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A Practical Treatise on the Culture and Treatment of the Grape Vine, embracing 
Its history, with directions for its treatment in the United States of America, in the 
open air and under glass structures, with and without artificial heat. By J, Flsk 
Allen. Price $1. 

Mysteries of Bee-keeping Explained ; 

Being a Complete Analysis of the whole subject, consisting of the Naturel Historr 
of Bees, Directions for Obtaining the greatest amount of Pure Surplus Hjney with 
the least possible expense ; Remedies for Losses given, and the Science of Luck , 
fully illustrated ; the result of more than twenty years' expftrience in extensivt 
Aoianes. By M, Quinby. Price $1 . 



Books Published by C. M. Saxton. 



The Shepherd's Own Book; 



With an Account of the different Breeds and Management, and Diseases of Sheep ; 
and General Directions in rogard to Summer and Winter Management, Breeding, 
and the Treatment of Diseases ; with Illustrative Engravings, by Vouatt & Ran 
dall, embracing Skinner's Notes on the Breed and Management of Sheep in the 
United States, and on the Culture of Fine Wool. Price $2. 



Canfield on Sheep. 



The Breeds, Management, Structure and Diseases of the Sheep, with Illustrative 
Engravings, and an Appendix, containing List of Medicines used in the Treatment 
of Diseases, Plans of Stalls, Gates, Barn, Sheds, &c. &c. Price $1. 

Johnston's Chemistrj and Geology. 

Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, with a Complete Analytical 
and Alphabetical Index. By Simon Brown, Esq., Editor of the New Englaiid 
Farmer. Price $1.25. 

Practical Agriculture ; 

Being a Treatise on the General Relations which Science bears to Agriculture 
Delivered before the New York State Agricultural Society ; with Notes and Es 
planations by an American Farmer. Cloth. 75 cts. ; paper 50 cts. 

Johnston's Agricultural Chemistrj^ 

Lectures on the Application of Chemistry and Geology to Agriculture. Ne'* 
edition, with an Appendix. $1.25. 

Smith's Landscape Gardening, Parks & Pleasure Grounds; 

With Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks and Gardens. 
By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and Garden Architect, &c., with 
Notes and Additions by Lewis F. Allen, author of " Rural Architecture," &c. 

The author, while engaged in his profession for the last eighteen years, has 
often been requested to recommend a book wliich might enable persons to acquire 
some general knowledge of the principles of Landscape Gardening. 

The object of the present work is to preserve a plain and direct method of state- 
ment, to be intelligible to all who have had an ordinary education, and to givo 
directions which, it is hoped, will be found to be practical by those who have an 
adequate knowledge of country aflairs. Price $1.25. 

Guide to the Orchard and Fruit Garden ; 

Or an Account of the most valuable Fruits Cultivated in Great Britain. By 
George Lindlcy ; with additions of all the most valuable Fruits Culti'-ated in 
America, with Directions for their Cultivation, Budding, Grafting and Propaga- 
tion ; Pruning and Training of Standards, Open Dwaif and Espalier Fruit Trees, 
adapted to the Climate of the United States of America. A new elition, with an 
Appendix, describing many American Fruits not mentioned in the brmer edition 
Price $.125. 



The American Fruit Culturist ; 



Containing Directions for the Propagation and Culture of Frui Trees in the 
Nursery, Orchard and Garden ; with Descriptions of the principal American and 
Foreign varieties Cultivated in the United States. By John J. Thomas, lllustra- 
ted with three hundred accurate figures. Price $1.25. 



A merican Poultry Yard. 



The American Poultry Yard ; comprising the Origin, History and Description of 
the different Breeds of Domestic Pcaltry, with complete directions for their 
Breedinoj, Crossing, Rearing, Fattening and Preparation for Market ; including 
specific directions for Caponizing Fowls, and for the Treatment of tne Principal 
Diseases to which they are subject drawn from authentic sources and personal 
onserv.-ition lUust-ated with numerom engravings. By D. J. B'Mwne. Clot*i 
$1 , pHp.^r, 76 cU 



Books Published by C. M. Saxton. 



Y'ouatt and Martin on Cattle ; 

Boing a Treatise on their Breeds, Management and Diseases, comprising a full 
History of the Various Races ; their Origin, Breeding and Merits their capacity 
for Beef and Milk. By W. Youatt and W. C. L. Martin. The whole forming a 
complete Guide for the Farmer, the Amateur, and the Veterinary Surgeon, with 
100 illusti-ations. Edited by Aml^rose Stevens. $1.25. 

Vouatt on the Horse. 

Youatt on the Structure and Diseases of the Horse, wit a their Remedies 
Also, Practical Rules for Buyers, Breeders, Smiths, &c. Edited by W. C. 
Spooner, M. R. C. V. S. With an cjcount of the Breeds in the United States, bv 
Henry S. Randall. $1.25. ' 



Youatt and Martin on the Hog. 



A Treatise on the Breeds, Management and Medical Treatment of Swine, with 
directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams. By Wm. Youatt, R. S. 
Illustrated with engravings drawn from life $1.00. 

Youatt on Sheep ; 

Their Breed, Management and Diseases, with illustrative engravings ; to which 
are added Remarks on the Breeds and Management of Sheep in the United States, 
and on the Culture of Fine Wool in Silesia. By William Youatt. 75 cts. 

American Architect. 

The American Architect, comprising Original Designs of cheap Country and 
Village Residences, with Details, Specifications, Plans and Directions, and an est!- 
mate of the Cost of each Design. By John W. Ritch, Architect. First and Second 
Series, quarto, bound in one vol., half roan, $6. 

Domestic Medicine. 

Gunn's Domestic Medicine, or Poor Man's Friend in the Hours of Affliction, Pain 
and Sickness Raymond's new revised edition, imnroved and enlarged by John 
C. Gunn, 8vo. Sheep, $3. 



Family Kitchen Gardener ; 



Containing Plain and Accurate Descriptions of all the difl'erent Species and Varie 
ties of Culinary Vegetables, with their Botanical, English, French and German 
names, alphabetically arranged, and the best mode of cultivating them in the 
garden, or under glass ; also, Descriptions and Character of the most Select Fruits; 
their Managerrwnt, Propagation, &c. By Robert Buist, author of the American 
Flower Garden Directory, &c. Cloth, 75 cts. ; paper, 50 cts. 

Hoare on the Grape Vine. 

A Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine on Open Walls, with a 
Descriptive Account of an improved method of Planting and Managing the Roots 
of Grape Vines. By Clement Hoare. With an Appendix on the Cultivation of the 
same in the United States. 50 cts. 

Stephens' Book of the Farm ; 

A Complete Guide to the Farmer, Steward, Plowman, Cattleman, Shepherd, Field 
Worker and Dairy Maid. By Henry Stephens. With Four Hundred and Fifty 
Illustrations ; to which are added Explanatory Notes, Remarks, &c., by J. S 
Skinner. Really one of the best books for a Farmer to possess. Cloth, $4- 
leather, $4.50. 

The Diseases of Domestic Animals ; 

Being a History and Description of the Horse, Mule, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, Poultry 
and Farm Dogs, with Directions for their Management, Breeding, Crossing, Rear, 
ing. Feeding and Preparation for a profitable Market ; also, tlicir Diseases and 
Remedies, together with full Directions- for the Management of the Dairv,an'I the 
Comp?rative Economy and Advantages of Working Animals, the Harse, JJulo^ 
-O/xen; S:c. By R. L. Alle*:. Cloth, 75 cts ; paper, 50 eta. 



4 Books Puhlishtd hy C. M. JSaxton. 

American Bee-keeper's Manual ; 

Being a Practical Treatise on the History and Domestic Economy of the H*ney 
Bee ; embracing a full illustration of the whole subject, with the most approved 
methods of managing this Insect, through every branch of its Culture, the result 
of many years' experience Illustrated with many engravings. By T. B. Miner 
Cloth, $1. 

American Bird Fancier, 

Considered with reference to the Breeding, Rearing, Feeding, Management, &c 
of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with engravings. By D. J. Browne 
Cloth, 60 cts. 

The American Farm Book. 

The American Farm Book ; or, a Compend of American Agriculture, being a 
Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain, Roots, 
Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and every Staple Product of the United 
States ; with the best methods of planting, cultivating and preparation for market. 
Illustrated by more than 100 engravings. By R. L. Allen. Cloth, $1 ; paper, 75 
cents. 

Southern Agriculture ; 

Comprising Essays on the Cultivation ot Corn, Hemp, Tobacco, Wheat, &c. $1 

The Cottage and Farm Bee-keeper ; 

A Practical "Work, by a Country Curate. 50 cts. 

A Book for Every Boy in the Country. 

Elements of Agriculture. Translated from the French, and adapted to general 
use, by F. G. Skinner. 25 cts. 

Allen's Kural Architecture ; 

Comprising Farm Houses, Cottages, Carriage Houses, Sheep and Dove Cotes, 
Piggeries, Barns, &c. &c. By Lewis F. Allen $1.25. 

The Kose ; 

Being a Practical Treatise on the Propagalioo, Cultivation and Management ol 
the Rose in all Seasons ; with a List of Choice and Approved Varieties, adapted to 
the Climate of the United Statea ; to which is added Full Directions for the Treat 
ment of the Dahlia. Illustrated by engravings. Cloth, 50 cts. 



The American. Agriculturist ; 



Being a Collection of Original Articles on the Various Subjects connected with 
the Farm, in ten vols. 8vo., containing nearly four thousand pages. $10. 

The Complete Farmer and American Gardener, 

Rural Economist, and New American Gardener, containing a Compendious 
E.pitome of the most Important Branches of Agricultural and Rural Economy ; 
with Practical Directioas on the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables ; ircluding 
Landscape and Ornamental Gardening. By Thomas G. Fessenden. 2 vols, in one. 
$1.25. 

Experimental Eesearches on the Food of Animals, 

The Fattening of Cattle, and Remarks on the Foo d of Man. By Robert Dundai 
Thompson, M.D. 75 cts. 

Tlie American Florist's Guide ; 

Comprising the American Rose Culturist and Every Lady her own Flower 
Gardener. Half cloth, 76 cts. 



Saxton's Rural Hand Books, 



First and Socond Series. Bound in 2 vols. $2.50 Embracing Iwelve Complete 
Tr-ati'^PB in the different departments of Agriculture, being ors of the most valu- 
able BfKjks v«a1 pjldished 



i.r 



